Bone health

Bone health refers to the overall condition and strength of the human skeletal system, which is crucial for maintaining mobility, preventing fractures, and supporting overall well-being throughout life. It is influenced by various factors, including genetics, nutrition, physical activity, and hormonal balance.[1] Optimal bone health is characterized by adequate bone mineral density (BMD) and proper bone microarchitecture, which together contribute to bone strength.[2] Osteoporosis, a skeletal disorder characterized by compromised bone strength and increased risk of fractures, is a major concern in bone health, particularly among older adults.[2][3] Maintaining good bone health involves a combination of adequate calcium and vitamin D intake, regular weight-bearing exercise, and avoiding risk factors such as smoking and excessive alcohol consumption.[1][4] Recent research has also highlighted the potential role of the gut microbiome in bone health, suggesting a complex interplay between various physiological systems in maintaining skeletal integrity.[2]

The human skeletal system is a complex organ in constant equilibrium with the rest of the body. In addition to supporting and giving structure to the body, a bone is the major reservoir for many minerals and compounds essential for maintaining a healthy pH balance.[5] The deterioration of the body with age renders the elderly particularly susceptible to and affected by poor bone health. Illnesses like osteoporosis, characterized by weakening of the bone's structural matrix, increases the risk of hip-fractures and other life-changing secondary symptoms. In 2010, over 258,000 people aged 65 and older were admitted to the hospital for hip fractures.[6] Incidence of hip fractures is expected to rise by 12% in America, with a projected 289,000 admissions in the year 2030.[7] Other sources estimate up to 1.5 million Americans will have an osteoporotic-related fracture each year.[8] The cost of treating these people is also enormous, in 1991 Medicare spent an estimated $2.9 billion for treatment and out-patient care of hip fractures, this number can only be expected to rise.[9]

  1. ^ a b Office of the Surgeon General (US) (2004). "Determinants of Bone Health". Bone Health and Osteoporosis: A Report of the Surgeon General. Rockville (MD): Office of the Surgeon General (US).
  2. ^ a b c Chin KY, Ng BN, Rostam MK, Muhammad Fadzil NF, Raman V, Mohamed Yunus F, et al. (October 2022). "A Mini Review on Osteoporosis: From Biology to Pharmacological Management of Bone Loss". Journal of Clinical Medicine. 11 (21): 6434. doi:10.3390/jcm11216434. PMC 9657533. PMID 36362662.
  3. ^ Torsney KM, Noyce AJ, Doherty KM, Bestwick JP, Dobson R, Lees AJ (October 2014). "Bone health in Parkinson's disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. 85 (10): 1159–1166. doi:10.1136/jnnp-2013-307307. PMC 4173751. PMID 24620034.
  4. ^ des Bordes J, Prasad S, Pratt G, Suarez-Almazor ME, Lopez-Olivo MA (2020). "Knowledge, beliefs, and concerns about bone health from a systematic review and metasynthesis of qualitative studies". PLOS ONE. 15 (1): e0227765. Bibcode:2020PLoSO..1527765D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0227765. PMC 6961946. PMID 31940409.
  5. ^ Barzel US, Massey LK (June 1998). "Excess dietary protein can adversely affect bone". The Journal of Nutrition. 128 (6): 1051–1053. doi:10.1093/jn/128.6.1051. PMID 9614169.
  6. ^ "National Hospital Discharge Survey (NHDS)". National Center for Health Statistics. Archived from the original on 30 November 2013. Retrieved 24 November 2013.
  7. ^ Stevens JA, Rudd RA (October 2013). "The impact of decreasing U.S. hip fracture rates on future hip fracture estimates". Osteoporosis International. 24 (10): 2725–2728. doi:10.1007/s00198-013-2375-9. PMC 4717482. PMID 23632827.
  8. ^ Hyson DA (September 2011). "A comprehensive review of apples and apple components and their relationship to human health". Advances in Nutrition. 2 (5): 408–420. doi:10.3945/an.111.000513. PMC 3183591. PMID 22332082.
  9. ^ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (October 1996). "Incidence and costs to Medicare of fractures among Medicare beneficiaries aged > or = 65 years--United States, July 1991-June 1992". MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. MMWR. 45 (41): 877–883. PMID 8927007.