The country-of-origin effect (COE), also known as the made-in image and the nationality bias,[1] is a psychological effect describing how consumers' attitudes, perceptions and purchasing decisions are influenced by products' country of origin labeling, which may refer to where: a brand is based, a product is designed or manufactured, or other forms of value-creation aligned to a country.[2] Since 1965, it has been extensively studied by researchers.[3]