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In particle physics, an elementary particle or fundamental particle is a subatomic particle that is not composed of other particles.[1] The Standard Model presently recognizes seventeen distinct particles—twelve fermions and five bosons. As a consequence of flavor and color combinations and antimatter, the fermions and bosons are known to have 48 and 13 variations, respectively.[2] Among the 61 elementary particles embraced by the Standard Model number: electrons and other leptons, quarks, and the fundamental bosons. Subatomic particles such as protons or neutrons, which contain two or more elementary particles, are known as composite particles.
Ordinary matter is composed of atoms, themselves once thought to be indivisible elementary particles. The name atom comes from the Ancient Greek word ἄτομος (atomos) which means indivisible or uncuttable. Despite the theories about atoms that had existed for thousands of years the factual existence of atoms remained controversial until 1905. In that year Albert Einstein published his paper on Brownian motion, putting to rest theories that had regarded molecules as mathematical illusions. Einstein subsequently identified matter as ultimately composed of various concentrations of energy.[1][3]
Subatomic constituents of the atom were first identified toward the end of the 19th century, beginning with the electron, followed by the proton in 1919, the photon in the 1920s, and the neutron in 1932.[1] By that time the advent of quantum mechanics had radically altered the definition of a "particle" by putting forward an understanding in which they carried out a simultaneous existence as matter waves.[4][5]
Many theoretical elaborations upon, and beyond, the Standard Model have been made since its codification in the 1970s. These include notions of supersymmetry, which double the number of elementary particles by hypothesizing that each known particle associates with a "shadow" partner far more massive.[6][7] However, like an additional elementary boson mediating gravitation, such superpartners remain undiscovered as of 2024.[8][9][1]
- ^ a b c d Cite error: The named reference
PFIwas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Braibant, S.; Giacomelli, G.; Spurio, M. (2009). Particles and Fundamental Interactions: An Introduction to Particle Physics. Springer. pp. 313–314. ISBN 978-94-007-2463-1. Archived from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 19 October 2020.
- ^ Newburgh, Ronald; Peidle, Joseph; Rueckner, Wolfgang (2006). "Einstein, Perrin, and the reality of atoms: 1905 revisited" (PDF). American Journal of Physics. 74 (6): 478–481. Bibcode:2006AmJPh..74..478N. doi:10.1119/1.2188962. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 August 2017. Retrieved 17 August 2013.
- ^ Weinert, Friedel (2004). The Scientist as Philosopher: Philosophical consequences of great scientific discoveries. Springer. pp. 43, 57–59. Bibcode:2004sapp.book.....W. ISBN 978-3-540-20580-7.
- ^ Kuhlmann, Meinard (24 July 2013). "Physicists debate whether the world is made of particles or fields – or something else entirely". Scientific American.
- ^ "Unsolved mysteries: Supersymmetry". The Particle Adventure. Berkeley Lab. Retrieved 28 August 2013.
- ^ Revealing the Hidden Nature of Space and Time: Charting the Course for Elementary Particle Physics. National Academies Press. 2006. p. 68. Bibcode:2006rhns.book....... ISBN 978-0-309-66039-6.
- ^ O'Neill, Ian (24 July 2013). "LHC discovery maims supersymmetry, again". Discovery News. Archived from the original on 13 March 2016. Retrieved 28 August 2013.
- ^ "CERN latest data shows no sign of supersymmetry – yet". Phys.Org. 25 July 2013. Retrieved 28 August 2013.