High-level radioactive waste management

Spent nuclear fuel stored underwater and uncapped at the Hanford site in Washington, US.

High-level radioactive waste management addresses the handling of radioactive materials generated from nuclear power production and nuclear weapons manufacture. Radioactive waste contains both short-lived and long-lived radionuclides, as well as non-radioactive nuclides.[1] In 2002, the United States stored approximately 47,000 tonnes of high-level radioactive waste.

Among the constituents of spent nuclear fuel, neptunium-237 and plutonium-239 are particularly problematic due to their long half-lives of two million years and 24,000 years, respectively.[2] Handling high-level radioactive waste requires sophisticated treatment processes and long-term strategies such as permanent storage, disposal, or conversion into non-toxic forms to isolate it from the biosphere.[3] Radioactive decay follows the half-life rule, which means that the intensity of radiation decreases over time as the rate of decay is inversely proportional to the duration of decay. In other words, the radiation from a long-lived isotope like iodine-129 will be much less intense than that of short-lived isotope like iodine-131.[4]

Governments worldwide are exploring various disposal strategies, usually focusing on a deep geological repository, though progress in implementing these long-term solutions has been slow.[5] This challenge is exacerbated by the timeframes required for safe decay, ranging from 10,000 to millions of years.[6][7][8] Thus, physicist Hannes Alfvén identified the need for stable geological formations and human institutions that can endure for extended periods, noting the absence of any civilization or geological formation that has proven stable for such durations.[9]

The management of radioactive waste not only involves technical and scientific considerations but also raises significant ethical concerns regarding the impacts on future generations.[10] The debate over appropriate management strategies includes arguments for and against the reliance on geochemical simulation models and natural geological barriers to contain radionuclides post-repository closure.[11]

Despite some scientists advocating for the feasibility of relinquishing control over radioactive materials to geohydrologic processes, skepticism remains due to the lack of empirical validation of these models over extensive time periods.[12] Others insist on the necessity of deep geologic repositories in stable formations.[13][14] Forecasts concerning the health impacts of long-term radioactive waste disposal are critically assessed,[15] with practical studies typically considering only up to 100 years for planning and cost evaluation.[16][17] Ongoing research continues to inform the long-term behavior of radioactive wastes, influencing management strategies and national policies globally.[18]

  1. ^ "Iodine-131". stoller-eser.com. Archived from the original on 2011-07-16. Retrieved 2009-01-05.
  2. ^ Vandenbosch 2007, p. 21.
  3. ^ Ojovan, M. I.; Lee, W.E. (2014). An Introduction to Nuclear Waste Immobilisation. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers. p. 362. ISBN 978-0-08-099392-8.
  4. ^ "What about Iodine-129 - Half-Life is 15 Million Years". Berkeley Radiological Air and Water Monitoring Forum. University of California. 28 March 2011. Archived from the original on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 1 December 2012.
  5. ^ Brown, Paul (2004-04-14). "Shoot it at the sun. Send it to Earth's core. What to do with nuclear waste?". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2017-03-21. Retrieved 2016-12-17.
  6. ^ National Research Council (1995). Technical Bases for Yucca Mountain Standards. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. p. 91. ISBN 0-309-05289-0. Archived from the original on 2020-08-18. Retrieved 2020-05-23.
  7. ^ "The Status of Nuclear Waste Disposal". The American Physical Society. January 2006. Archived from the original on 2008-05-16. Retrieved 2008-06-06.
  8. ^ "Public Health and Environmental Radiation Protection Standards for Yucca Mountain, Nevada; Proposed Rule" (PDF). United States Environmental Protection Agency. 2005-08-22. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2008-06-26. Retrieved 2008-06-06.
  9. ^ Abbotts, John (October 1979). "Radioactive waste: A technical solution?". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 35 (8): 12–18. Bibcode:1979BuAtS..35h..12A. doi:10.1080/00963402.1979.11458649.
  10. ^ Genevieve Fuji Johnson, Deliberative Democracy for the Future: The Case of Nuclear Waste Management in Canada Archived 2018-06-20 at the Wayback Machine, University of Toronto Press, 2008, p.9 ISBN 0-8020-9607-7
  11. ^ Bruno, Jordi, Lara Duro, and Mireia Grivé. 2001. The applicability and limitations of the geochemical models and tools used in simulating radionuclide behavior in natural waters: Lessons learned from the blind predictive modelling exercises performed in conjunction with natural analogue studies. QuantiSci S. L. Parc Tecnològic del Vallès, Spain, for Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Co.
  12. ^ Shrader-Frechette, Kristin S. 1988. "Values and hydrogeological method: How not to site the world’s largest nuclear dump" In Planning for Changing Energy conditions, John Byrne and Daniel Rich, eds. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, p. 101 ISBN 0-88738-713-6
  13. ^ Shrader-Frechette, Kristin S. Burying uncertainty: Risk and the case against geological disposal of nuclear waste Berkeley: University of California Press (1993) p. 2 ISBN 0-520-08244-3
  14. ^ Shrader-Frechette, Kristin S. Expert judgment in assessing radwaste risks: What Nevadans should know about Yucca Mountain. Carson City: Nevada Agency for Nuclear Projects, Nuclear Waste Project, 1992 ISBN 0-7881-0683-X
  15. ^ "Issues relating to safety standards on the geological disposal of radioactive waste" (PDF). International Atomic Energy Agency. 2001-06-22. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2008-06-26. Retrieved 2008-06-06.
  16. ^ "IAEA Waste Management Database: Report 3 – L/ILW-LL" (PDF). International Atomic Energy Agency. 2000-03-28. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2008-06-26. Retrieved 2008-06-06.
  17. ^ "Decommissioning costs of WWER-440 nuclear power plants" (PDF). International Atomic Energy Agency. November 2002. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2008-06-26. Retrieved 2008-06-06.
  18. ^ "Spent Fuel and High Level Waste: Chemical Durability and Performance under Simulated Repository Conditions" (PDF). International Atomic Energy Agency. October 2007. IAEA-TECDOC-1563. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2008-12-16. Retrieved 2008-12-24. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)