Human factors in diving safety

For other factors and general information, see Diving safety.

Human factors are the physical or cognitive properties of individuals, or social behavior which is specific to humans, and which influence functioning of technological systems as well as human-environment equilibria. The safety of underwater diving operations can be improved by reducing the frequency of human error and the consequences when it does occur.[1] Human error can be defined as an individual's deviation from acceptable or desirable practice which culminates in undesirable or unexpected results.[2] Human factors include both the non-technical skills that enhance safety and the non-technical factors that contribute to undesirable incidents that put the diver at risk.[3]

[Safety is] An active, adaptive process which involves making sense of the task in the context of the environment to successfully achieve explicit and implied goals, with the expectation that no harm or damage will occur. – G. Lock, 2022[4]

Dive safety is primarily a function of four factors: the environment, equipment, individual diver performance and dive team performance. The water is a harsh and alien environment which can impose severe physical and psychological stress on a diver. The remaining factors must be controlled and coordinated so the diver can overcome the stresses imposed by the underwater environment and work safely. Diving equipment is crucial because it provides life support to the diver, but the majority of dive accidents are caused by individual diver panic and an associated degradation of the individual diver's performance. – M.A. Blumenberg, 1996[1]

Human error is inevitable and most errors are minor and do not cause significant harm, but others can have catastrophic consequences. Examples of human error leading to accidents are available in vast numbers, as it is the direct cause of 60% to 80% of all accidents.[5] In a high risk environment, as is the case in diving, human error is more likely to have catastrophic consequences. A study by William P. Morgan indicates that over half of all divers in the survey had experienced panic underwater at some time during their diving career.[6] These findings were independently corroborated by a survey that suggested 65% of recreational divers have panicked under water.[7] Panic frequently leads to errors in a diver's judgment or performance, and may result in an accident. Human error and panic are considered to be the leading causes of dive accidents and fatalities.[6][8][9][10][11][12]

Only 4.46% of the recreational diving fatalities in a 1997 study[13] were attributable to a single contributory cause. The remaining fatalities probably arose as a result of a progressive sequence of events involving two or more procedural errors or equipment failures, and since procedural errors are generally avoidable by a well-trained, intelligent and alert diver, working in an organised structure, and not under excessive stress, it was concluded that the low accident rate in professional scuba diving is due to these factors.[14] The study also concluded that it would be impossible to eliminate absolutely all minor contraindications for scuba diving, as this would result in overwhelming bureaucracy and would bring all diving to a halt.[13]

Human factors engineering (HFE), also known as human factors and ergonomics, is the application of psychological and physiological principles to the engineering and design of equipment, procedures, processes, and systems. Primary goals of human factors engineering are to reduce human error, increase productivity and system availability, and enhance safety, health and comfort with a specific focus on the interaction between the human and equipment.[15]

  1. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Blumenberg 1996 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Bea 1994 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Pellerin 2021 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Lock 2022 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  5. ^ Cite error: The named reference Perrow 1984 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  6. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Morgan 1995 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  7. ^ Cite error: The named reference Staff 1996 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  8. ^ Cite error: The named reference Brown 1982 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  9. ^ Cite error: The named reference Elliott 1984 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  10. ^ Cite error: The named reference Shelanski 1996 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  11. ^ Cite error: The named reference Vorosmarti 1987 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  12. ^ Cite error: The named reference Lock 2011 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  13. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference PARAS 1997 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  14. ^ Cite error: The named reference Tetlow 2006 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  15. ^ Cite error: The named reference Wickens et al 1997 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).