Jupiter is usually thought to have originated as a sky god. His identifying implement is the thunderbolt and his primary sacred animal is the eagle,[16][17] which held precedence over other birds in the taking of auspices[18] and became one of the most common symbols of the Roman army (see Aquila). The two emblems were often combined to represent the god in the form of an eagle holding in its claws a thunderbolt, frequently seen on Greek and Roman coins.[19] As the sky-god, he was a divine witness to oaths, the sacred trust on which justice and good government depend. Many of his functions were focused on the Capitoline Hill, where the citadel was located. In the Capitoline Triad, he was the central guardian of the state with Juno and Minerva. His sacred tree was the oak.
The Romans regarded Jupiter as the equivalent of the Greek Zeus,[20] and in Latin literature and Roman art, the myths and iconography of Zeus are adapted under the name Jupiter. In the Greek-influenced tradition, Jupiter was the brother of Neptune and Pluto, the Roman equivalents of Poseidon and Hades respectively. Each presided over one of the three realms of the universe: sky, the waters, and the underworld. The ItalicDiespiter was also a sky god who manifested himself in the daylight, usually identified with Jupiter.[21]Tinia is usually regarded as his Etruscan counterpart.[22]
^Demiraj 2011, p. 70; Demiraj 2002, p. 34; Demiraj 1997, pp. 431–432; Mann 1977, p. 72; Treimer 1971, p. 32; Curtis 2017, p. 1746; Kölligan 2017, p. 2254.
^West, M.L. (1966) Hesiod Theogony: 18–31; Kirk, G.S. (1970) Myth: Its meaning and function in ancient and other cultures: 214–220 Berkeley and Los Angeles; with Zeus being the Greek equivalent of Jupiter.
^Basham, A. L., ed. (1986), "Jupiter", The Wonder that was India, Rupa & Co, p. 236
^West, M. L. (2007). Indo-European Poetry and Myth. Oxford University Press. p. 171. ISBN978-0-19-928-075-9.
^Pleins, J. David (2010). When the great abyss opened: classic and contemporary readings of Noah's flood. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 110. ISBN978-0-19-973363-7.
^Iūpiter is thought to be the historically older form and Iuppiter, to have arosen through the so-called littera-rule. Compare Weiss (2010). "Observations on the littera rule"(PDF). Cornell Phonetics Lab. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University. Archived from the original(PDF) on 17 October 2016.
^Dumézil (1974), p. [page needed] citing Pliny Naturalis Historia X 16. A. Alföldi Zu den römischen Reiterscheiben in Germania30 1952 p. 188 and n. 11.
^Dictionary of Roman Coins, see e.g. reverse of "Consecratio" coin of Emperor Commodus & coin of Ptolemy V Epiphanes minted c. 204–180 BC.
^Larousse Desk Reference Encyclopedia, The Book People, Haydock, 1995, p. 215.
^Diespiter should not be confused with Dis pater, but the two names do cause confusion even in some passages of ancient literature; P.T. Eden, commentary on the Apocolocyntosis (Cambridge University Press, 1984, 2002), pp. 111–112.
^Massimo Pallottino, "Etruscan Daemonology", p. 41, and Robert Schilling, "Rome", pp. 44 and 63, both in (1981, 1992) Roman and European Mythologies, University of Chicago Press, 1992, transl. from the 1981 French edition; Giuliano Bonfante and Larissa Bonfante, (1983, 2003) The Etruscan Language: An Introduction, Manchester University Press rev. ed., pp. 24, 84, 85, 219, 225; Nancy Thomson de Grummond, (2006), Etruscan Myth, Sacred History, and Legend, University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, pp. 19, 53–58 et passim; Jean MacIntosh Turfa, (2012), Divining the Etruscan World: The Brontoscopic Calendar and Religious Practice Cambridge University Press, p. 62.