Paradox

For other uses, see Paradox (disambiguation).

A paradox is a logically self-contradictory statement or a statement that runs contrary to one's expectation.[1][2] It is a statement that, despite apparently valid reasoning from true or apparently true premises, leads to a seemingly self-contradictory or a logically unacceptable conclusion.[3][4] A paradox usually involves contradictory-yet-interrelated elements that exist simultaneously and persist over time.[5][6][7] They result in "persistent contradiction between interdependent elements" leading to a lasting "unity of opposites".[8]

In logic, many paradoxes exist that are known to be invalid arguments, yet are nevertheless valuable in promoting critical thinking,[9] while other paradoxes have revealed errors in definitions that were assumed to be rigorous, and have caused axioms of mathematics and logic to be re-examined. One example is Russell's paradox, which questions whether a "list of all lists that do not contain themselves" would include itself and showed that attempts to found set theory on the identification of sets with properties or predicates were flawed.[10][11] Others, such as Curry's paradox, cannot be easily resolved by making foundational changes in a logical system.[12]

Examples outside logic include the ship of Theseus from philosophy, a paradox that questions whether a ship repaired over time by replacing each and all of its wooden parts one at a time would remain the same ship.[13] Paradoxes can also take the form of images or other media. For example, M.C. Escher featured perspective-based paradoxes in many of his drawings, with walls that are regarded as floors from other points of view, and staircases that appear to climb endlessly.[14]

Informally, the term paradox is often used to describe a counterintuitive result.

  1. ^ Weisstein, Eric W. "Paradox". mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2019-12-05.
  2. ^ "By “paradox” one usually means a statement claiming something that goes beyond (or even against) ‘common opinion’ (what is usually believed or held)." Cantini, Andrea; Bruni, Riccardo (2017-02-22). "Paradoxes and Contemporary Logic". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2017 ed.).
  3. ^ "paradox". Oxford Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on February 5, 2013. Retrieved 21 June 2016.
  4. ^ Bolander, Thomas (2013). "Self-Reference". The Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 21 June 2016.
  5. ^ Smith, W. K.; Lewis, M. W. (2011). "Toward a theory of paradox: A dynamic equilibrium model of organizing". Academy of Management Review. 36 (2): 381–403. doi:10.5465/amr.2009.0223. JSTOR 41318006.
  6. ^ Zhang, Y.; Waldman, D. A.; Han, Y.; Li, X. (2015). "Paradoxical leader behaviors in people management: Antecedents and consequences" (PDF). Academy of Management Journal. 58 (2): 538–566. doi:10.5465/amj.2012.0995.
  7. ^ Waldman, David A.; Bowen, David E. (2016). "Learning to Be a Paradox-Savvy Leader". Academy of Management Perspectives. 30 (3): 316–327. doi:10.5465/amp.2015.0070. S2CID 2034932.
  8. ^ Schad, Jonathan; Lewis, Marianne W.; Raisch, Sebastian; Smith, Wendy K. (2016-01-01). "Paradox Research in Management Science: Looking Back to Move Forward" (PDF). Academy of Management Annals. 10 (1): 5–64. doi:10.5465/19416520.2016.1162422. ISSN 1941-6520.
  9. ^ Eliason, James L. (March–April 1996). "Using Paradoxes to Teach Critical Thinking in Science". Journal of College Science Teaching. 15 (5): 341–44. Archived from the original on 2013-10-23.
  10. ^ Irvine, Andrew David; Deutsch, Harry (2016), "Russell's Paradox", in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2016 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, retrieved 2019-12-05
  11. ^ Crossley, J.N.; Ash, C.J.; Brickhill, C.J.; Stillwell, J.C.; Williams, N.H. (1972). What is mathematical logic?. London-Oxford-New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 59–60. ISBN 0-19-888087-1. Zbl 0251.02001.
  12. ^ Shapiro, Lionel; Beall, Jc (2018), "Curry's Paradox", in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2018 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, retrieved 2019-12-05
  13. ^ "Identity, Persistence, and the Ship of Theseus". faculty.washington.edu. Retrieved 2019-12-05.
  14. ^ Skomorowska, Amira (ed.). "The Mathematical Art of M.C. Escher". Lapidarium notes. Retrieved 2013-01-22.