Parental alienation

Parental alienation is a theorized process through which a child becomes estranged from one parent as the result of the psychological manipulation of another parent.[1][2] The child's estrangement may manifest itself as fear, disrespect or hostility toward the distant parent, and may extend to additional relatives or parties.[3][4] The child's estrangement is disproportionate to any acts or conduct attributable to the alienated parent.[5] Parental alienation can occur in any family unit, but is claimed to occur most often within the context of family separation, particularly when legal proceedings are involved,[6] although the participation of professionals such as lawyers, judges and psychologists may also contribute to conflict.[7]

Proponents of the concept of parental alienation assert that it is primarily motivated by one parent's desire to exclude the other parent from their child's life.[8] Some assert that parental alienation should be diagnosable in children as a mental disorder.[9] Some propose that parental alienation be recognized as a form of child abuse or family violence.[2][10] They assert that parental alienation creates stress on the alienated parent and the child,[11][12] and significantly increases the child's lifetime risk of mental illness.[13][14][15]

Parental alienation remains controversial both within the psychological community and the legal system. The psychological community has not accepted parental alienation as a diagnosable mental condition.[16] Critics note that alienating behaviors are common in high-conflict family situations such as child custody proceedings,[17] but that the estrangement of a child from a parent remains rare.[18] They assert that the research performed to date does not support the theory that parental alienation results in the harm described by proponents of the concept.[19] They also express concern that a parent who has caused a child to become estranged, for example through acts of domestic violence or child abuse, may claim to be the victim of parental alienation to convince a court that the child's justified response to the abuse is the result of the other parent's misconduct and to potentially gain custody of the child.[20] No diagnostic criteria have been established for parental alienation, and proposals made to date have not been established as reliable.[19][21] No program of treatment has been demonstrated to be safe or valid,[22] and proponents of parental alienation theory agree that more research into treatment is necessary.[23]

The theory of parental alienation has been asserted within legal proceedings as a basis for awarding custody to a parent who alleges estrangement, or to modify custody in favor of that parent.[24] Courts have generally rejected parental alienation as a valid scientific theory, but some courts have allowed the concept to be argued as relevant to the determination of the child's best interests when making a custody determination.[25] Legal professionals recognize that alienating behaviors are common in child custody cases, but are cautious about accepting the concept of parental alienation.[17]

  1. ^ Jaffe, Alan M.; Thakkar, Melanie J.; Piron, Pascale; Walla, Peter (11 May 2017). "Denial of ambivalence as a hallmark of parental alienation". Cogent Psychology. 4 (1). doi:10.1080/23311908.2017.1327144.
  2. ^ a b Kruk, Edward (2018). "Parental Alienation as a Form of Emotional Child Abuse: Current State of Knowledge and Future Directions for Research" (PDF). Family Science Review. 22 (4): 142. doi:10.26536/EVMS9266. S2CID 249248153. Retrieved 24 October 2019.
  3. ^ Lorandos, Demosthenes, Ph.D., J.D.; Baker, Amy, Ph.D; Campbell, Terence, Ph.D.; Freeman, Bradley, M.D.; Lowrance, Hon. Michele, J.D. (2013). Slovenko, Ralph, B.E., LL.B., M.A., Ph.D.; Bernet, William, M.D.; et al. (eds.). Parental Alienation: The Handbook for Mental Health and Legal Professionals. Springfield, Il: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, LTD. ISBN 978-0-398-08881-1. LCCN 2013011346.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ^ Doughty, Julie; Maxwell, Nina; Slater, Tom (April 2018). "Review of research and case law on parental alienation" (PDF). ORCA - Online Research at Cardiff University. Cascade Children's Social Care Research and Development Center. p. 21. Retrieved 24 October 2019.
  5. ^ Ellis, Elizabeth M.; Boyan, Susan (30 April 2010). "Intervention Strategies for Parent Coordinators in Parental Alienation Cases". The American Journal of Family Therapy. 38 (3): 218–236. doi:10.1080/01926181003757074. S2CID 146593914.
  6. ^ Harman, Jennifer J.; Leder-Elder, Sadie; Biringen, Zeynep (July 2016). "Prevalence of parental alienation drawn from a representative poll". Children and Youth Services Review. 66: 62–66. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.04.021.
  7. ^ Braver, Sanford L.; Cookston, Jeffrey T.; Cohen, Bruce R. (October 2002). "Experiences of Family Law Attorneys With Current Issues in Divorce Practice*". Family Relations. 51 (4): 325–334. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3729.2002.00325.x.
  8. ^ Lowenstein, Ludwig F. (7 April 2010). "Attachment Theory and Parental Alienation". Journal of Divorce & Remarriage. 51 (3): 157–168. doi:10.1080/10502551003597808. S2CID 143674769.
  9. ^ Bernet, William; Baker, Amy J. L. (2013). "Parental Alienation, DSM-V, and ICD-11: Response to Critics". The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law. 41 (1): 98–104. PMID 23503183. Retrieved 24 October 2019.
  10. ^ Harman, Jennifer J.; Kruk, Edward; Hines, Denise A. (December 2018). "Parental alienating behaviors: An unacknowledged form of family violence". Psychological Bulletin. 144 (12): 1275–1299. doi:10.1037/bul0000175. PMID 30475019. S2CID 53726361.
  11. ^ Poustie, Clare; Matthewson, Mandy; Balmer, Sian (28 May 2018). "The Forgotten Parent: The Targeted Parent Perspective of Parental Alienation". Journal of Family Issues. 39 (12): 3298–3323. doi:10.1177/0192513X18777867. S2CID 149465952.
  12. ^ Cite error: The named reference marchetti was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  13. ^ Baker, Amy J. L.; Ben-Ami, Naomi (October 2011). "To Turn a Child Against a Parent Is To Turn a Child Against Himself: The Direct and Indirect Effects of Exposure to Parental Alienation Strategies on Self-Esteem and Well-Being". Journal of Divorce & Remarriage. 52 (7): 472–489. doi:10.1080/10502556.2011.609424. S2CID 144536648.
  14. ^ Baker, Amy J. L. (31 December 2009). "Adult Recall of Parental Alienation in a Community Sample: Prevalence and Associations With Psychological Maltreatment". Journal of Divorce & Remarriage. 51 (1): 16–35. doi:10.1080/10502550903423206. S2CID 144538129.
  15. ^ Ben-Ami, Naomi; Baker, Amy J. L. (March 2012). "The Long-Term Correlates of Childhood Exposure to Parental Alienation on Adult Self-Sufficiency and Well-Being". The American Journal of Family Therapy. 40 (2): 169–183. doi:10.1080/01926187.2011.601206. S2CID 146306354.
  16. ^ O’Donohue, William; Benuto, Lorraine T.; Bennett, Natalie (2016-07-02). "Examining the validity of parental alienation syndrome". Journal of Child Custody. 13 (2–3): 113–125. doi:10.1080/15379418.2016.1217758. ISSN 1537-9418. S2CID 151811817.
  17. ^ a b Bow, James N.; Gould, Jonathan W.; Flens, James R. (9 March 2009). "Examining Parental Alienation in Child Custody Cases: A Survey of Mental Health and Legal Professionals". The American Journal of Family Therapy. 37 (2): 127–145. doi:10.1080/01926180801960658. S2CID 45543509.
  18. ^ Kelly, Joan B.; Johnston, Janet R. (15 March 2005). "The Alienated Child: A Reformulation of Parental Alienation Syndrome". Family Court Review. 39 (3): 249–266. doi:10.1111/j.174-1617.2001.tb00609.x. S2CID 7922654.
  19. ^ a b Mercer, Jean (21 January 2019). "Are intensive parental alienation treatments effective and safe for children and adolescents?". Journal of Child Custody. 16 (1): 67–113. doi:10.1080/15379418.2018.1557578. S2CID 151210393.
  20. ^ Silberg, J.; Dallam, S. (2019). "Abusers Gaining Custody in Family Courts: A Case Series of Overturned Decisions". Journal of Child Custody. 16 (2): 140–169. doi:10.1080/15379418.2019.1613204. S2CID 198616599.
  21. ^ Simring Milchman, Madelyn (2 July 2019). "How far has parental alienation research progressed toward achieving scientific validity?". Journal of Child Custody. 16 (2): 115–139. doi:10.1080/15379418.2019.1614511. S2CID 216134223.
  22. ^ Dallam, Stephanie; Silberg, Joyanna L. (11 October 2016). "Recommended treatments for "parental alienation syndrome" (PAS) may cause children foreseeable and lasting psychological harm". Journal of Child Custody. 13 (2–3): 134–143. doi:10.1080/15379418.2016.1219974. S2CID 152002771.
  23. ^ Reay, Kathleen M. (26 February 2015). "Family Reflections: A Promising Therapeutic Program Designed to Treat Severely Alienated Children and Their Family System". The American Journal of Family Therapy. 43 (2): 197–207. doi:10.1080/01926187.2015.1007769. S2CID 71174575.
  24. ^ Clemente, Miguel; Padilla-Racero, Dolores (11 October 2016). "When courts accept what science rejects: Custody issues concerning the alleged "parental alienation syndrome"". Journal of Child Custody. 13 (2–3): 126–133. doi:10.1080/15379418.2016.1219245. S2CID 151682513.
  25. ^ Nichols, Allison M. (February 2014). "Toward a Child-Centered Approach to Evaluating Claims of Alienation in High-Conflict Custody Disputes". University of Michigan Law Review. 112 (4): 663–688. PMID 24446573. Retrieved 24 October 2019.