The 1740s (pronounced "seventeen-forties") decade ran from January 1, 1740, to December 31, 1749. Many events during this decade sparked an impetus for the Age of Reason. Military and technological advances brought one of the first instances of a truly global war to take place here, when Maria Theresa of Austria’s struggle to succeed the various crowns of her father King Charles VI led to a war involving nearly all European states in the War of the Austrian Succession, eventually spilling over to North America with the War of Jenkins’ Ear (which went on to involve many of the West’s first ferocious maritime battles). Capitalism grew robust following the fallout of the South Sea bubble two decades and the subsequent reign of Sir Robert Walpole, whose rule ended in the earlier half of this decade.
January 8 – All 237 crewmen on the Dutch East India Company ship Rooswijk are drowned when the vessel strikes the shoals of Goodwin Sands, off of the coast of England, as it is beginning its second voyage to the Indies. The wreckage is discovered more than 250 years later, in 2004.[1]
March 13 – The British Royal Navy takes 180 warships, frigates and transport vessels, led by Admiral Edward Vernon, to threaten Cartagena, Colombia, with more than 27,000 crew against the 3,600 defenders.[13]
October 12 – George II, as Elector of Hanover, signs the Neustadt Protocol with France, but fails to inform his British government until after his return from Germany.[21]
May – In Peru, Juan Santos takes the name Atahualpa II, and begins an ill-fated rebellion against Spanish rule. Father Domingo Garcia sends the first report of the rebellion to his superiors on June 2.[34]
Accompanied by 10 French Army observers, Choctaw Indians from the French Louisiana territory cross the Tombigbee River and raid Chickasaw Indian towns in Georgia.[37] Over three days, the attackers lose 50 men, the Chickasaw defenders about 25. For permitting the attack, the French Louisiana governor, the Sieur de Bienville, is summoned back to Paris.
Irish author and poet Dean Jonathan Swift is declared by a court to be "of unsound mind and memory" and confined to home treatment for the remaining three years of his life.[38]
A British fleet led by Commodore William Martin enters the harbor of Naples with three warships, two frigates, and four bomb vessels, and sends a message giving the King Charles VII of Naples (the future King Charles III of Spain) 30 minutes to agree to withdraw Neapolitan troops from the Spanish Army. Don Carlos agrees and ends the threat of a Spanish foothold in Italy.[39]
Voltaire's controversial play Fanatacism, or Mahomet the Prophet is first performed, in Paris, to a theatre audience filled with French nobility.[40]
September 5 – The 46 survivors of Russia's Great Northern Expedition return to Petropavlovsk after having been shipwrecked on an island in the Bering Strait ten months earlier. They had completed the building of a new ship from the wreckage of the St Pyotr on August 21. [43]
Charles Jervas's English translation of Don Quixote is published posthumously. Through a printer's error, the translator's name is printed as 'Charles Jarvis', leading the book to forever be known as the Jarvis translation. It is acclaimed as the most faithful English rendering of the novel made up to this time.
The Roman Catholic church decrees that Roman ceremonial practice in Latin (not in Chinese) is to be the law for Chinese missions.
January 8 – King Augustus III of Poland, acting in his capacity as Elector of Saxony, signs an agreement with Austria, pledging help in war in return for part of Silesia to be conveyed to Saxony.[48]
January 23 – With mediation by France, Sweden and Russia begin peace negotiations at Åbo to end the Russo-Swedish War. By August 17, Sweden cedes all of its claims to southern Finland.[52]
April 9 – The Verendrye brothers make the first contact since 1722 between Europeans and the Sioux Indians, whom they refer to as Les Gens de la Fleche Collee ("the people of the sheathed arrow").[56]
July 13 – All 276 people on board the Dutch East India Company ship Hollandia drown after the ship strikes a rock off of the Isles of Scilly in England near Cornwall. The wreckage is located in 1971.
July 20 – Lord Anson captures the Philippine galleonNuestra Señora de Covadonga and its treasure of 1,313,843 Spanish dollars at Manila along with a treasure of 2 1/2 million dollars, and proceeds back toward Mexico, then returns to Britain in 1744 [59]
October 19 – Louis Maria Colons, one of nine French Canadians who had attempted to colonize territory in what is now New Mexico, is executed for attempting to persuade the Pueblo Indians to rise up against the Spanish colonial government.[64]
October 21 – Benjamin Franklin's view of a lunar eclipse from Philadelphia is spoiled by a rainstorm; several days later, he learns that residents of Boston received the same storm hours after the eclipse, demonstrating that weather moves from west to east.[65]
December 10 – King Louis XV of France informs King Philip V of Spain of his intent to try to restore the House of Stuart to the throne of the United Kingdom. James Francis Edward Stuart was briefly the Crown Prince of England and Scotland until his father, King James II, was deposed in 1688 and, as Pretender to the Throne, would become King James III if the attack, planned for January 1, 1744 succeeds.[69]
January 6 – The Royal Navy ship Bacchus engages the Spanish Navy privateer Begona, and sinks it; 90 of the 120 Spanish sailors die, but 30 of the crew are rescued.
March 13 – The British ship Betty capsizes and sinks off of the Gold Coast (modern-day Ghana) near Anomabu. More than 200 people on board die, although there are a few survivors.
May 11 – Russia's treasury begins an effort to reduce the number of copper five-kopeck pieces (20 of which equal a Russian ruble) by declaring that it will buy them back at a ruble for every 20 until August 1, after which kopecks would be redeemed at a ruble for every 25; then at the rate of 33 for a ruble on October 1, and 50 for a ruble on and after August 28, 1746.[74]
June 28 – At the age of 15, Princess Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst, the future Empress of Russia, is received into the Russian Orthodox Church after converting from the Lutheran faith. Upon her conversion to the Russian Orthodox religion, she is given the name Yekaterina (Catherine). In 1762, she takes the throne as the Empress Catherine II, later known as Catherine the Great.
October 4 – In one of the greatest disasters for the Royal Navy, HMS Victory sinks in a storm in the English Channel, killing 1,100 sailors and officers it had been bringing back from Gibraltar to England, including Admiral John Balchen.[79] The wreck will be located 264 years later, in January, 2009.[80]
The Massachusetts General Court, colonial legislature for the Massachusetts Bay Province, approves an incentive for the killing of enemy Indians, authorizing the payment of 100 Massachusetts pounds for the scalping of a Mi'kmaq or Maliseet Indian, and 50 for the scalps of women or children.[83]
December 18 – Queen Maria Theresa of Austria issues a proclamation to rid Bohemia of its Jewish residents, with the Jews to leave Prague over the next two weeks, and then to depart from Bohemia entirely in 1745.[86]
January 20 – Less than two weeks after the disastrous Battle of Amberg leaves Bavaria undefended, the electorate's ruler (and Holy Roman Emperor) Karl VII Albrecht dies from gout at the age of 47, leaving the duchy without an adult to lead it. His 17-year-old son, Maximilian III Joseph, signs terms of surrender in April.
February 22 – The ruling white colonial government on the island of Jamaica foils a conspiracy by about 900 black slaves, who had been plotting to seize control and to massacre the white residents.[89]
February 27 – Pierre Bouguer appears before the French Academy of Sciences to deliver his report of the data gathered in the French Geodesic Mission, including the first precise measurement of the Earth's circumference.[91] His determination that the circumference is 24,854.85 miles (40,000.00 km) and that the distance from the pole to equator is roughly 6,214 miles (10,000 km) eventually leads to the Academy's calculation of the metre and the metric system.
April 4 – (March 24, old style); Under the command of British Army General William Pepperrell, the first 4,300 American colonists in the New England Army depart Boston to liberate the French North American colony of Nova Scotia. The flotilla of 80 military transports and 18 armed escorts is scattered by a storm, but the first troops disembark at Canso, Nova Scotia, on April 15 and begin training while waiting for the arrival of the Royal Navy squadron commanded by Admiral Peter Warren[93]
April 29 – The heavily-armed French NavyfrigateRenommée approaches the French colony of Nova Scotia, after having been dispatched to warn French forces at Louisbourg of the impending attack by British American forces. However, the Massachusetts privateer HMS Shirley Galley, commanded by John Rous, attacks the Renommée and forces it to sail away. The command at Louisbourg is not warned of the impending attack [93]
November 8 – Jacobite rising of 1745: Charles Edward Stuart, known popularly as "Bonnie Prince Charlie", crosses from Scotland into England for the first time since beginning his quest to place his father on the English throne as the pretender King James III. Charles arrives at Longtown in Cumbria and spends the night at a nearby village, the Riddings, then leads his army south along the right bank of the River Eden the next day [101]
December 4 – Jacobite rising of 1745: The Scottish Jacobite army reaches as far south as Derby in England, causing panic in London; two days later it begins to retreat.[95]
July 3 – Father Joachim Royo, the last of the five Spanish Catholic missionaries to Fuzhou in China, is captured by Chinese authorities, after having spent three decades defying orders to not evangelize.[111] He and three fellow priests are put to death two years later, on October 28, 1748.
November 4 – Anwaruddin Khan, the Nawab of the Arcot State in South India, is driven back by the Captain Louis Paradis of the French Army after he and 10,000 soldiers attempt to drive the French back out of Madras.[112]
Charles Batteux's Les beaux-arts réduits à un même principe is published in Paris, putting forward for the first time the idea of "les beaux arts": "the fine arts".
December 13 – The ordeal of the Maryland freighter sloopEndeavour begins when the ship departs Annapolis for the West Indies and encounters a hurricane. With its masts and rigging torn away, the ship drifts for six months before finally ending up at the island of Tiree off the coast of Scotland[120]
December 27 – The Parliament of Great Britain amends its Naturalisation Act of 1740 to extend recognition to all non-Anglican Protestant denominations in its colonies.[121]
January 27 – A fire at the prison and barracks at Kinsale, in Ireland, kills 54 of the prisoners of war housed there. An estimated 500 prisoners are safely conducted to another prison.[123]
March 25 – A fire in the City of London starts at Change Alley in Cornhill and continues for two days. Dr. Samuel Johnson later writes, "The conflagration of a city, with all its turmoil and concominant distress, is one of the most dreadful spectacles which this world can afford to human eyes".[123] Another history notes more than a century later that "the fire led to a great increase in the practice of fire insurance", after the blaze causes more than £1,000,000 worth of damage.
May 10 – As word arrives that the Dutch Republic has agreed to return control of Maastricht to France, the French Army's leader of the siege, Count Löwendal, marches through the opened city gates with his troops and accepts its surrender.[125]
A fire in Moscow kills 482 people and destroys 5,000 buildings.[123]
José de Escandón is designated by the Viceroy of New Spain as the first Royal Governor of Nuevo Santander. The area covered by the Viceroyalty's new province is now part of the Mexican state of Tamaulipas, and the part of the U.S. state of Texas south of the Guadalupe River (including San Antonio and Corpus Christi).
July 29 – Royal Navy Admiral Edward Boscawen arrives at the coast of southeastern India with 28 ships, to defend Fort St. David from attacks by armies of French India. Historian Francis Grose later writes that Boscawen had brought the largest fleet "ever seen together in the East Indies", with nine ships of the line, two frigates, a sloop, and two tenders" [126] and 14 ships of the British East India Company. Altogether, Boscawen has 3,580 sailors under his command. He then launches an offensive to destroy the French fort at Pondicherry and drive France from the subcontinent.
August 26 – The first Lutheran Church body in America is founded at a conference in Philadelphia, organized by German-born evangelist Henry Muhlenberg and attended by pastors of orthodox and pious Lutheran communities.[127] The two groups agree to create a common liturgy to govern public worship.
August – The Camberwell beauty butterfly is named after specimens found at Camberwell in London.
December 4 – Austria and Spain sign a second treaty to settle the War of the Austrian Succession, and Austria agrees to remove its troops from Modena and Genoa.
March 6 – A "corpse riot" breaks out in Glasgow after a body disappears from a churchyard in the Gorbals district. Suspicion falls on anatomy students at the Glasgow Infirmary "had raised a dead body from the grave and carried it to the college" for dissection.[134] The city guard intervenes after a mob of protesters begins breaking windows at random buildings, but groups of citizens begin to make regular patrols of church graveyards[135]
March 17 – At London's Covent Garden, composer George Frideric Handel conducts the first performance of his new oratorio, Solomon. More than 250 years later, an instrumental from Solomon, "The Arrival of the Queen of Sheba"; will be featured in the 2012 London Summer Olympics opening ceremony.[136]
May 19 – King George II of Great Britain grants the Ohio Company 200,000 acres (81,000 ha) (312½ square miles or 810 km2) of land north of the Ohio River, encompassing most of the modern U.S. state of Ohio and part of West Virginia. The grant is conditioned on the Company being able to attract 100 European families every year, for seven years, to move to the area occupied by Indian tribes, and to build a fort to protect them[138]
August 2 – Irish-born trader George Croghan, unaware of the recent British grant of land in the Ohio River valley to the Ohio Company, purchases 200,000 acres of much of the same land from the Six Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy, dealing directly with "the three most important Iroquois chiefs resident in that area, in return for an immense quantity of Indian goods." The deal takes place at the Iroquois capital of Onondaga, near present-day Syracuse, New York.[140]
The Battle of Ambur is fought in south India as the Second Carnatic War begins between the French-supported troops of Chanda Sahib of the Mughal Empire and the British-supported defenders of the Arcot State, led by its 77-year old Nawab, Anwaruddin Khan. After marching outside of the walls of Arcot to confront Chanda Sahib and Joseph Dupleix's 4,000 troops, Anwaruddin Khan's numerically superior force is routed and he is killed in the battle.[141]
August 7 – Mary Musgrove Bosomworth, a woman of mixed British and Creek Indian ancestry, presents herself as Coosaponakeesa, Queen of the Creek Indians and marches with 200 Creek Indians into the town of Savannah, Georgia. During her confrontation with British colonial authorities, she and her husband Thomas Bosomworth demand payment of "nearly twenty-five thousand dollars" in compensation for property taken from the Creek Indians, before the British authorities determine that she doesn't have the authority to speak for the tribe.[143]
August 15 – Four Russian sailors— Aleksei Inkov, Khrisanf Inkov, Stepan Sharapov and Fedor Verigin— are rescued after having been marooned on the Arctic Ocean island of Edgeøya for more than six years. They are the only survivors of a crew of 14 whose koch had been blown off course in May 1743 and then broken up by ice.[144] The four are returned home on September 28.
August 19 – At a ceremony in San Antonio, Texas (then a part of the New Spain province of Nuevo Santander), four Apache chiefs and Spanish colonial officials and missionaries literally "bury the hatchet", placing weapons of war into a pit and covering it as a symbol that the Apaches and the Spaniards will fight no further war against each other.[145]
September 28 – Three Russian survivors of the shipwreck on Edgeøya return to their homeland after more than six years, as the ship Nikolai i Andrei brings them to the port of Archangelsk.[144] A fourth survivor, Fedor Veriginare, died of scurvy during the six-week voyage home.
October 2 – Edward Cornwallis, the British Governor of Nova Scotia, commands his militia and local citizens "to annoy, distress, take or destroy the Savage commonly called Micmac, wherever they are found" and promises a reward of ten guineas (21 British shillings) for every Mi'kmaq scalp brought in.[149]
October 4 – What is later described as "the least examined yet most influential"[150] of clerical reforms, by the Spanish Bourbon monarchs of the 18th century, begins when King Ferdinand VI of Spain approves a royal cédula, removing control of the Roman Catholic parishes of Latin America from religious orders. Henceforward, jurisdiction over parishioners in the archdioceses of Lima, Mexico City and Bogotá is with the secular clergy.
November 12 – In response to the increasing number of starving people moving into Paris from rural parts of France, King Louis XV issues an ordinance that "all the beggars and vagabonds who shall be found either in the streets of Paris, or in churches or church doorways, or in the countryside around Paris, of whatever age or sex, shall be arrested and conducted into prisons, to stay there as long as shall be necessary."[153][154]
November 24 – The Province of South Carolina House of Assembly votes to free African-American slave Caesar Norman, and to grant him a lifetime pension of 100 British pounds per year, in return for Caesar's agreement to share the secret of his antidote for poisonous snake venom. Caesar then makes public his herbal cure of juice from Plantago major (the common plantain) and Marrubium vulgare (horehound), combined with "a leaf of good tobacco moistened with rum".[155]
December 1 – Sultan Azim ud-Din I, recently forced to flee to Manila after being driven from the throne of Sultanate of Sulu elsewhere in the Philippine Islands, announces his intention to convert from Sunni Islam to become baptized as a Christian within the Roman Catholic Church. He changes his name to Fernando after being baptized.[156]
December 5 – French composer Jean-Philippe Rameau premieres his new opera, Zoroastre, at the Théâtre du Palais-Royal in Paris, but the first version is not a success.[157] After five years of rewriting, Rameau will revive Zoroastre on January 19, 1756 and the opera will continue to be performed more than two centuries later.
December 7 – Father Junípero Serra begins his missionary work in the New World, 100 days after departing on a voyage from Spain and a day after his arrival at Veracruz in Mexico.[158] During the period from 1769 to 1782, Serra will be the founder of nine missions in the Province of Las Californias, including the sites around which future California cities will be built, including Mission Basilica San Diego de Alcalá in 1769 and Mission San Francisco de Asís in 1776.
December 30 – Mir Sayyid Muhammad, a grandson of the Shah Suleiman of Persia, overthrows Shahrokh Shah to become the Shah of Persia, and briefly restores the Safavid dynasty as Suleiman II; his reign ends less than three months later, on March 20, when Kurdish tribesmen restore Shahrokh to the throne.[159]
June 24 – Juan Ignacio Molina, Spanish-Chilean Jesuit priest, naturalist, historian, translator, geographer, botanist, ornithologist and linguist (d. 1829)
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^Axworthy, Michael (2010). Sword of Persia: Nader Shah, from Tribal Warrior to Conquering Tyrant. I.B. Tauris.
^Simms, Brendan; Riotte, Torsten (2007). The Hanoverian Dimension in British History, 1714–1837. Cambridge University Press. p. 1041.
^Whaley, Joachim (2012). Germany and the Holy Roman Empire: Volume II: The Peace of Westphalia to the Dissolution of the Reich, 1648-1806. Oxford University Press. p. 354.
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^Tucker, Spencer (2010). A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. p. 739.
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^Shishigina, Anna (2005). "Chirikov, Alexei". In Nuttall, Mark (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Arctic. Routledge. p. 333.
^Thomas Carlyle, History of Friedrich II of Prussia, called Frederick the Great, Vol. 15 (1865, reprinted by Charles Scribner's Sons, 1903) p319
^"Appendix E: History of the Publication", by Paul A. Scanlon in Joseph Andrews, by Henry Fielding (Broadview Press, 2001) p504
^International Military Alliances, 1648-2008, ed. by Douglas M. Gibler (Congressional Quarterly Press, 2008) pp. 88, 105.
^Doane Robinson, History of South Dakota (B. F. Bowen & Company, 1904) p53
^"The Jewish living space in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania: tendencies and ways of its formation", by Jurgita Šiaučiūnaitė-Verbickienė, in Jewish Space in Central and Eastern Europe: Day-to-Day History (Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2009) p24
^Colonial Latin America: A Documentary History, ed. by Kenneth Mills, et al. (Rowman & Littlefield, 2002) p302
^"Goldbach's Conjectures: A Historical Perspective", by Robert C. Vaughan, in Open Problems in Mathematics, ed. by John Forbes Nash, Jr. and Michael Th. Rassias. Springer, 2016) p479
^"Fires, Great", in The Insurance Cyclopeadia: Being an Historical Treasury of Events and Circumstances Connected with the Origin and Progress of Insurance, Cornelius Walford, ed. (C. and E. Layton, 1876) p50
^Edward J. Cashin, Guardians of the Valley: Chickasaws in Colonial South Carolina and Georgia (University of South Carolina Press, 2009) p57
^"Swift, Jonathan", by Donald C. Mell, in Macmillan Dictionary of Irish Literature, ed. by Robert Hogan (Macmillan, 2016) p652
^I. S. Leadam, The Political History of England: The history of England from the accession of Anne to the death of George II, 1702-1760 (Longmans, Green and Co., 1909) p372
^S. G. Tallentyre, The Life of Voltaire, Volume 1 (G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1910) p141.
^"Russo-Swedish War of 1741–43", in Dictionary of Wars, by George Childs Kohn (Routledge, 2013) p420
^"Anson, George", by Keith A. Parker, in Historical Dictionary of the British Empire, ed. by James S. Olson and Robert Shadle (Greenwood Publishing, 1996) p68
^Edward Heawood, "A History of Geographical Discovery in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries" (Cambridge University Press,
CUP Archive, 1912) p267
^An Account of the Foundling Hospital in London, for the Maintenance and Education of Exposed and Deserted Young Children (Foundling Hospital, 1826) p20
^Lorenzo Boturini Benaduci, Idea of a New General History of North America: An Account of Colonial Native Mexico (University of Oklahoma Press, 2015) p6
^Lois Mulkearn, ed., George Mercer Papers: Relating to the Ohio Company of Virginia (University of Pittsburgh Press, 1954) p657
^Frederick Samuel Dellenbaugh, Breaking the Wilderness: The Story of the Conquest of the Far West (G.P. Putnam and Sons, 1908) p139
^Maureen Cassidy-Geiger, Fragile Diplomacy (Yale University Press, 2007) p38
^Olin Dunbar Wheeler, The Trail of Lewis and Clark, 1804-1904: A Story of the Great Exploration Across the Continent in 1804-6 (G.P. Putnam and Sons, 1904) p213
^D. R. M. Irving, Colonial Counterpoint: Music in Early Modern Manila (Oxford University Press, 2010)
^The Cambridge Modern History, Volume 6: The Eighteenth Century, ed. by A. W. Ward, et al. (Macmillan, 1909) p314
^Louis de Bonald, On Divorce (Transaction Publishers, 2011) p155
^George M. Wrong, The conquest of New France (Yale University Press, 1918) p129
^Nanda R. Shrestha, In the Name of Development: A Reflection on Nepal (University Press of America, 1997) p6
^Royal B. Hassrick, The Sioux: Life and Customs of a Warrior Society (University of Oklahoma Press, 2012)
^James Ross McCain, Georgia as a Proprietary Province: The Execution of a Trust (R.G. Badger, 1917) p298
^"Adolphus Frederick of Holstein-Entin, in The American Cyclopedia: A Popular Dictionary of General Knowledge", ed. by George Ripley and Charles A. Dana (D. Appleton and Company, 1873) p129
^Francisco Antonio Mourelle, Voyage of the Sonora in the Second Bucareli Expedition, translated by Daines Barrington (T.C. Russell, 1920) p108
^"James Oglethorpe", by Dr. Walter H. Charlton, in The American Monthly Magazine (June 1911) p294
^Bernard D. Rostker, Providing for the Casualties of War: The American Experience Through World War II (Rand Corporation, 2013) p46
^Charles C. Royce, Indian Land Cessions of the United States, (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1899) p569
^Mattila, Tapani (1983). Meri maamme turvana [Sea safeguarding our country] (in Finnish). Jyväskylä: K. J. Gummerus Osakeyhtiö. ISBN951-99487-0-8.
^Ralph Emerson Twitchell, The Leading Facts of New Mexican History, Vol. I (Torch Press, 1911, reprinted by Sunstone Press, 2007) p438
^Bruce Parker, The Power of the Sea: Tsunamis, Storm Surges, Rogue Waves, and Our Quest to Predict Disasters (St. Martin's Press, 2012)
^Martin Sicker, The Islamic World in Decline: From the Treaty of Karlowitz to the Disintegration of the Ottoman Empire (Greenwood Publishing, 2001) p63
^Neil Safier, Measuring the New World: Enlightenment Science and South America (University of Chicago Press, 2008) p104
^David A.J. Seargent, The Greatest Comets in History: Broom Stars and Celestial Scimitars (Springer, 2008) p116
^Andrew Lang, A History of Scotland from the Roman Occupation (W. Blackwood and Sons, 1907) p443
^Michael A. Beatty, The English Royal Family of America, from Jamestown to the American Revolution (McFarland, 2003) p164
^Giscombe, C. S. (Winter 2012). "Precarious Creatures". The Kenyon Review. 34 (NS) (1). Gambier, Ohio: Kenyon College: 157–175. JSTOR41304743. I looked it up later and found out that it's generally conceded that they were all dead by the 1680s. But a story persists that a fellow named MacQueen killed the last wolf in Scotland - and, implicitly, in all Britain - after that, in 1743. (Henry Shoemaker mentions the story in the section of Extinct Pennsylvania Animals that concerns wolves.)
^Instructions, golf club rules and competitions History of Golf accessed 10 Feb 2017 History of golf
^"Banking in the Russian Empire", by Antoine E. Horn, in A History of Banking in All the Leading Nations (Journal of Commerce and Commercial Bulletin, 1896) pp342-343
^Martin Philippson, The Age of the European Balance of Power, translated by John Henry Wright (Lea Brothers & Company, 1905) p267
^"Canso, Battle of (1744)", by John D. Hamilton, in Colonial Wars of North America, 1512-1763: An Encyclopedia, ed. by Alan Gallay (Routledge, 2015) p100
^John T. Alexander, Catherine the Great: Life and Legend (Oxford University Press, 1989) pp27-28
^"Anson, George", by Joseph A. Devine, Jr., in Historical Dictionary of the British Empire, ed. by James S. Olson and Robert Shadle (Greenwood Publishing Group, 1996) p68
^Stewart Gordon, A History of the World in Sixteen Shipwrecks (ForeEdge, University Press of New England, 2015) p.140
^Florence Caddy, Through the Fields with Linnaeus: A Chapter in Swedish History (Little, Brown, and Company, 1886) p159
^Frederic J. Baumgartner, Declaring War in Early Modern Europe (Springer, 2011) p149
^Geoffrey Plank, An Unsettled Conquest: The British Campaign Against the Peoples of Acadia (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2018) p110
^Robert Whitaker, The Mapmaker's Wife: A True Tale Of Love, Murder, And Survival In The Amazon (Basic Books, 2004) p197
^Peter Demetz, Prague in Black and Gold: Scenes from the Life of a European City (Macmillan, 1998) p243
^Selma Stern, The Court Jew - A Contribution to the History of the Period of Absolutism in Central Europe (Read Books, 2011)
^"War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748)", in Wars That Changed History: 50 of the World's Greatest Conflicts: 50 of the World's Greatest Conflicts, ed. by Spencer C. Tucker (ABC-CLIO, 2015) p214
^"Treaty of Quadruple Alliance", International Military Alliances, 1648-2008, ed. by Douglas M. Gibler (Congressional Quarterly Press, Oct 15, 2008) p94
^William Reed, The History of Sugar and Sugar-yielding Plants (Longmans, Green, and Co., 1866) p50
^Marion F. Godfroy, Kourou and the Struggle for a French America (Springer, 2015) p193
^Larrie D. Ferreiro, Measure of the Earth: The Enlightenment Expedition That Reshaped Our World (Basic Books, 2011) p253
^ abcMaureen Cassidy-Geiger, Fragile Diplomacy (Yale University Press, 2007) p66-74
^ abSpencer Tucker, Almanac of American Military History (ABC-CLIO, 2013) p137
^"War of the Austrian Succession (1740—1748)" in Wars That Changed History: 50 of the World's Greatest Conflicts, by Spencer C. Tucker (ABC-CLIO, 2015) p214
^Richard Davey, The Tower of London (E. P. Dutton, 1910) pp333-334
^
Anthony E. Clark, China's Saints: Catholic Martyrdom During the Qing (1644–1911) (Lexington Books, 2011) p73
^
Sir William W. Hunter, The History of Nations: India (John D. Morris, 1906) p179
^"Eighteenth Century", in Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492-2015, ed. by Micheal Clodfelter (McFarland, 2017) p77
^"The Baptism of Sultan Azim ud-Din of Sulu", by Ebrhard Crailsheim, in Image - Object - Performance: Mediality and Communication in Cultural Contact Zones of Colonial Latin America and the Philippines (Waxmann Verlag, 2013) p101
^
"Simon Fraser, Lord Lovat", by J.W. Allen, in Lives of Twelve Bad Men: Original Studies of Eminent Scoundrels by Various Hands (T. Fisher Unwin, 1894) p196
^Henry L. Fulton, Dr. John Moore, 1729–1802: A Life in Medicine, Travel, and Revolution (Rowman & Littlefield, 2014) p76
^Van den Heuvel, Danielle (Spring 2012). "The Multiple Identities of Early Modern Dutch Fishwives". Signs. 37 (3). University of Chicago Press: 587–594. doi:10.1086/662705. JSTOR10.1086/662705. S2CID145342581. ... in 1747 fishwives organized a large political demonstration in Amsterdam, and in 1748 the Amsterdam fish hawker Marretje Arents was one of the principal initiators of a tax riot in the city.
^T"Associators", by Paul G. Pierpaoli, Jr., in American Revolution: The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection (ABC-CLIO, 2018) p85
^Rosemary F. Williams, Maritime Annapolis: A History of Watermen, Sails & Midshipmen (Arcadia Publishing, 2009)
^George W. Forell, ed., Nine Public Lectures on Important Subjects in Religion by Nicholaus Ludwig Count von Zinzendorf (Wipf and Stock Publishers, 1998) p xxix
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^Elizabeth A. H. John, Storms Brewed in Other Men's Worlds: The Confrontation of Indians, Spanish, and French in the Southwest, 1540-1795 (University of Oklahoma Press, 1996) pp282-283
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^H. Parker Willis (December 1895). "Income Taxation in France". Journal of Political Economy. 4 (1). The University of Chicago Press: 37–53. doi:10.1086/250324. S2CID154527133. The war of the Austrian Succession for the third time threw the treasury back upon the hated fiscal resource in October of 1741, when the income tax was reintroduced accompanied by a royal promise to the effect that upon the close of the war this means of raising revenue should once for all be done away with.
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^Nicholas B. Wainwright, George Croghan: Wilderness Diplomat (University of North Carolina Press, 1959) p28
^Spencer C. Tucker, ed., A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East (ABC-CLIO, 2009) p756
^Terry A. Barnhart, American Antiquities: Revisiting the Origins of American Archaeology (University of Nebraska Press, 2015)
^Sara Hines Martin, Georgia's Remarkable Women: Daughters, Wives, Sisters, and Mothers Who Shaped History (Rowman & Littlefield, 2015) p15
^ abDavid Roberts, Four Against the Arctic: Shipwrecked for Six Years at the Top of the World (Simon and Schuster, 2005) p10
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^Michael Dekker, French & Indian Wars in Maine (Arcadia Publishing, 2015) p95
^J. M. Toner, annotations to Journal of My Journey Over the Mountains, by George Washington, while Surveying for Lord Thomas Fairfax, Baron of Cameron, in the Northern Neck of Virginia, beyond the Blue Ridge, in 1747-8 (Joel Munsell's Sons, 1892) p64.
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^Robert A. Voeks, The Ethnobotany of Eden: Rethinking the Jungle Medicine Narrative (University of Chicago Press, 2018) pp113-114
^"The Baptism of Sultan Azim ud-Din of Sulu", by Eberhard Crailsheim, in Image - Object - Performance: Mediality and Communication in Cultural Contact Zones of Colonial Latin America and the Philippines, ed. by Astrid Windus, et al. (Waxmann Verlag, 2013) pp97-98
^Cuthbert Girdlestone, Jean-Philippe Rameau: His Life and Work (Courier Corporation, 2014) p278
^Gregory Orfalea, Journey to the Sun: Junipero Serra's Dream and the Founding of California (Simon and Schuster, 2014) p80
^Martin Sicker, The Islamic World in Decline: From the Treaty of Karlowitz to the Disintegration of the Ottoman Emxpire (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001) p65