Bittern (salt)

This article is about the solution. For other uses, see Bittern (disambiguation).
This image depicts three salt ponds adjacent to each other, ranging in color from deep green to mustard yellow.
Bitterns can be produced from salt ponds which get their color from organisms adapted to the hypersaline environment.[1]

Bittern (pl. bitterns), or nigari, is the salt solution formed when halite (table salt) precipitates from seawater or brines. Bitterns contain magnesium, calcium, and potassium ions as well as chloride, sulfate, iodide, and other ions.[2][3]

Bittern is commonly formed in salt ponds where the evaporation of water prompts the precipitation of halite. These salt ponds can be part of a salt-producing industrial facility, or they can be used as a waste storage location for brines produced in desalination processes.[3]

Bittern is a source of many useful salts.[3][4] It is used as a natural source of Mg2+, and it can be used as a coagulant both in the production of tofu[5] and in the treatment of industrial wastewater.[6][7][8][9]

  1. ^ Oren, Aharon (2019-01-01), Seckbach, Joseph; Rampelotto, Pabulo (eds.), "Chapter 3 - Solar salterns as model systems for the study of halophilic microorganisms in their natural environments", Model Ecosystems in Extreme Environments, Astrobiology Exploring Life on Earth and Beyond, Academic Press, pp. 41–56, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-812742-1.00003-9, ISBN 9780128127421, S2CID 198855581, retrieved 2019-09-23
  2. ^ "Bittern - Chemistry". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 4 November 2015.
  3. ^ a b c Lozano, José A. Fernández (1976). "Recovery of Potassium Magnesium Sulfate Double Salt from Seawater Bittern". Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Process Design and Development. 15 (3): 445–449. doi:10.1021/i260059a018. ISSN 0196-4305.
  4. ^ Alamdari, A.; Rahimpour, M. R.; Esfandiari, N.; Nourafkan, E. (2008). "Kinetics of magnesium hydroxide precipitation from sea bittern". Chemical Engineering and Processing: Process Intensification. 47 (2): 215–221. doi:10.1016/j.cep.2007.02.012. ISSN 0255-2701.
  5. ^ Li, Jinlong; Cheng, Yongqiang; Tatsumi, Eizo; Saito, Masayoshi; Yin, Lijun (2014). "The use of W/O/W controlled-release coagulants to improve the quality of bittern-solidified tofu". Food Hydrocolloids. 35: 627–635. doi:10.1016/j.foodhyd.2013.08.002. ISSN 0268-005X.
  6. ^ Albuquerque, L. F.; Salgueiro, A. A.; Melo, J. L. de S.; Chiavone-Filho, O. (2013). "Coagulation of indigo blue present in dyeing wastewater using a residual bittern". Separation and Purification Technology. 104: 246–249. doi:10.1016/j.seppur.2012.12.005. ISSN 1383-5866.
  7. ^ Kumar, Ramesh; Pal, Parimal (2015). "Assessing the feasibility of N and P recovery by struvite precipitation from nutrient-rich wastewater: a review". Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 22 (22): 17453–17464. doi:10.1007/s11356-015-5450-2. ISSN 1614-7499. PMID 26408116. S2CID 6705389.
  8. ^ Lee, S. I; Weon, S. Y; Lee, C. W; Koopman, B (2003). "Removal of nitrogen and phosphate from wastewater by addition of bittern". Chemosphere. 51 (4): 265–271. Bibcode:2003Chmsp..51..265L. doi:10.1016/S0045-6535(02)00807-X. ISSN 0045-6535. PMID 12604078.
  9. ^ Li, X. Z.; Zhao, Q. L. (2002). "MAP Precipitation from Landfill Leachate and Seawater Bittern Waste". Environmental Technology. 23 (9): 989–1000. doi:10.1080/09593332308618348. hdl:10397/2444. ISSN 0959-3330. PMID 12361384. S2CID 24126386.