| Part of a series on |
| Chinese folk religion |
|---|
 |
|
Major cultural forms
Main philosophical traditions: Ritual traditions: Devotional traditions:
 Confucian churches and sects: |
Chinese theology, which comes in different interpretations according to the Chinese classics and Chinese folk religion, and specifically Confucian, Taoist, and other philosophical formulations,[1] is fundamentally monistic,[2] that is to say it sees the world and the gods of its phenomena as an organic whole, or cosmos, which continuously emerges from a simple principle.[3] This is expressed by the concept that "all things have one and the same principle" (wànwù yīlǐ 萬物一理).[4] This principle is commonly referred to as Tiān 天, a concept generally translated as "Heaven", referring to the northern culmen and starry vault of the skies and its natural laws which regulate earthly phenomena and generate beings as their progenitors.[5] Ancestors are therefore regarded as the equivalent of Heaven within human society,[6] and therefore as the means connecting back to Heaven which is the "utmost ancestral father" (曾祖父 zēngzǔfù).[7] Chinese theology may be also called Tiānxué 天學 ("study of Heaven"), a term already in use in the 17th and 18th centuries.[8]
The universal principle that gives origin to the world is conceived as transcendent and immanent to creation, at the same time.[9] The Chinese idea of the universal God is expressed in different ways; there are many names of God from the different sources of Chinese tradition, reflecting a "hierarchic, multiperspective" observation of the supreme God.[10]
Chinese scholars emphasise that the Chinese tradition contains two facets of the idea of God: one is the personified God of popular devotion, and the other one is the impersonal God of philosophical inquiry.[11] Together they express an "integrated definition of the monistic world".[12]
Interest in traditional Chinese theology has waxed and waned over the various periods of the history of China. For instance, the Great Leap Forward enacted in the mid-20th century involved the outright destruction of traditional temples in accordance with Maoist ideology. From the 1980s onward, public revivals have taken place. The Chinese believe that deities or stars, are arranged in a "celestial bureaucracy" which influences earthly activities and is reflected by the hierarchy of the Chinese state itself. These beliefs have similarities with broader Asian Shamanism. The alignment of earthly and heavenly forces is upheld through the practice of rites and rituals (Li), for instance the jiao festivals in which sacrificial offerings of incense and other products are set up by local temples, with participants hoping to renew the perceived alliance between community leaders and the gods.[13][14]
- ^ Adler (2011), pp. 4–5.
- ^ Zhong (2014), p. 98 ff.
- ^ Cai (2004), p. 314.
- ^ Zhong (2014), p. 182.
- ^ Didier (2009), passim.
- ^ Zhong (2014), pp. 76–77.
- ^ Zhong (2014), p. 84, note 282.
- ^ Zhong (2014), pp. 15–16.
- ^ Adler (2011), p. 5.
- ^ Lü & Gong (2014), p. 63.
- ^ Lü & Gong (2014), pp. 71–72.
- ^ Lü & Gong (2014), p. 73.
- ^ Stafford, Charles, ed. (2013). Ordinary Ethics in China. A & C Black. ISBN 978-0857854605. pp. 198–199.
- ^ McLeod, Alexus (2016). Astronomy in the Ancient World: Early and Modern Views on Celestial Events. Springer. ISBN 978-3319236001. pp. 89–90: "According to the Chinese view, the circumpolar stars represent the palace surrounding the emperor, who is the pole star, and the various members of the celestial bureaucracy. Indeed, the Chinese saw the night sky as a mirror of the empire, and saw the empire as a mirror of the sky, on earth. The sky was ... tian ..., and the empire had the authority of tian".