Colony collapse disorder

Honey bees at a hive entrance: one is about to land and another is fanning

Colony collapse disorder (CCD) is an abnormal phenomenon that occurs when the majority of worker bees in a honey bee colony disappear, leaving behind a queen, plenty of food, and a few nurse bees to care for the remaining immature bees.[1] While such disappearances have occurred sporadically throughout the history of apiculture, and have been known by various names (including disappearing disease, spring dwindle, May disease, autumn collapse, and fall dwindle disease),[2] the syndrome was renamed colony collapse disorder in early 2007[3] in conjunction with a drastic rise in reports of disappearances of western honey bee (Apis mellifera) colonies in North America.[4] Beekeepers in most European countries had observed a similar phenomenon since 1998, especially in Southern and Western Europe;[5][6] the Northern Ireland Assembly received reports of a decline greater than 50%.[7] The phenomenon became more global when it affected some Asian and African countries as well.[8][9] From 1990 to 2021, the United Nation’s FAO calculated that the worldwide number of honeybee colonies increased 47%, reaching 102 million.[10]

Colony collapse disorder could cause significant economic losses because many agricultural crops worldwide depend on pollination by western honey bees. According to FAO, the total value of global crops pollinated by honey bees was estimated at nearly US$200 billion in 2005.[11] In the United States, shortages of bees have increased the cost to farmers renting them for pollination services by up to 20%.[12] Declining numbers of bees predate CCD by several decades, however: the US managed hive industry has been shrinking at a steady pace since 1961.[13]

In contrast, the bee population worldwide has been increasing steadily since 1975, based on honey production, with China responsible for most of the growth.[14] The period of time with the lowest growth in worldwide honey production was between 1991 and 1999, due to the economic collapse after the dissolution of communism in the former Soviet sphere of influence.[13] As of 2020, the production has increased further by 50% compared to 2000, double the rate of growth in previous decades, notwithstanding CCD.[15] Experts estimate that there are currently more honey bees alive worldwide than at any other point in human history.[16]

Several possible causes for CCD have been proposed, but no single proposal has gained widespread acceptance among the scientific community. Suggested causes include pesticides,[17] infections with various pathogens, especially those transmitted by Varroa and Acarapis mites, malnutrition, genetic factors, immunodeficiencies, loss of habitat, or changing beekeeping practices, including a combination of these factors.[18][19] A large amount of speculation has surrounded the contributions of the neonicotinoid family of pesticides to CCD, but many collapsing apiaries show no trace of neonicotinoids.[19]

  1. ^ "Colony Collapse Disorder". US EPA. 29 August 2013. Retrieved 18 September 2019.
  2. ^ Oldroyd, Benjamin P. (2007). "What's Killing American Honey Bees?". PLOS Biology. 5 (6). e168. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050168. PMC 1892840. PMID 17564497.
  3. ^ Dennis vanEngelsdorp; Diana Cox-Foster; Maryann Frazier; Nancy Ostiguy; Jerry Hayes (5 January 2007). "Colony Collapse Disorder Preliminary Report" (PDF). Mid-Atlantic Apiculture Research and Extension Consortium (MAAREC) – CCD Working Group. p. 22. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 September 2015. Retrieved 24 April 2007.
  4. ^ van Engelsdorp, Dennis (3 August 2009). "Colony Collapse Disorder: A Descriptive Study". PLOS ONE. 4 (8). e6481. Bibcode:2009PLoSO...4.6481V. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0006481. PMC 2715894. PMID 19649264.
  5. ^ Dupont, Gaëlle (29 August 2007). "Les abeilles malades de l'homme". Le Monde (in French). Retrieved 23 March 2018.
  6. ^ Weakening, collapse and mortality of bee colonies; November 2008 – Updated April 2009 anses.fr
  7. ^ "Minutes of Northern Ireland Assembly". 8 June 2009. Retrieved 22 June 2010 – via Theyworkforyou.com.
  8. ^ "Decline of honey bees now a global phenomenon, says United Nations". Independent.co.uk. 10 March 2011.
  9. ^ "Global Honey Bee Colony Disorders and Other Threats to Insect Pollinators" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 September 2014.
  10. ^ "Bee colonies: Worldwide population on the rise". International Statistics. Federal Statistical Office of Germany. 2 March 2023. Retrieved 2 April 2024. The FAO estimated the number of bee colonies worldwide to be around 101.6 million in 2021. Compared to 1990, this corresponded to an increase of 47%
  11. ^ Spotlight: Protecting the pollinators Archived 8 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Fao.org. Retrieved on 2014-04-12.
  12. ^ Wines, Michael (28 March 2013). "Mystery Malady Kills More Bees, Heightening Worry on Farms". The New York Times. Retrieved 31 March 2013.
  13. ^ a b Aizen, Marcelo A.; Harder, Lawrence D. (9 June 2009). "The Global Stock of Domesticated Honey Bees Is Growing Slower Than Agricultural Demand for Pollination" (PDF). Current Biology. 19 (11): 915–918. Bibcode:2009CBio...19..915A. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2009.03.071. PMID 19427214. S2CID 12353259. Retrieved 10 September 2020.
  14. ^ Ciesla, William M. (2002). Non-Wood Forest Products from Temperate Broad-Leaved Trees. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization. ISBN 92-5-104855-X.
  15. ^ "Production volume of natural honey worldwide from 2010 to 2018 (in 1,000 metric tons)". Statista. 24 April 2020. Retrieved 10 September 2020.
  16. ^ Segal, David; Jazbec, Ciril (19 August 2023). "The Beekeepers Who Don't Want You to Buy More Bees". The New York Times. Retrieved 3 November 2023.
  17. ^ Cite error: The named reference CCDPR2010 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  18. ^ "Multiple causes for colony collapse – report". 3 News NZ. 3 May 2013. Archived from the original on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 3 May 2013.
  19. ^ a b Cepero, Almudena; Ravoet, Jorgen; Gómez-Moracho, Tamara; Bernal, José Luis; Del Nozal, Maria J.; Bartolomé, Carolina; Maside, Xulio; Meana, Aránzazu; González-Porto, Amelia V.; de Graaf, Dirk C.; Martín-Hernández, Raquel; Higes, Mariano (15 September 2014). "Holistic screening of collapsing honey bee colonies in Spain: a case study". BMC Research Notes. 7: 649. doi:10.1186/1756-0500-7-649. ISSN 1756-0500. PMC 4180541. PMID 25223634.