Dysgraphia

For the acquired neurological disorder that causes a loss in the ability to communicate through writing, see Agraphia.
Dysgraphia
Other namesDisorder of written expression
Three handwritten repetitions of the phrase "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog" on lined paper. The writing, by an adult with dysgraphia, exhibits variations in letter formation, inconsistent spacing, and irregular alignment, all key characteristics of the condition.
SpecialtyNeurology, Pediatrics
SymptomsPoor and inconsistent handwriting, Poor spelling and spacing, Other transcription difficulties in absence of oral language difficulties
Usual onsetEarly school age
DurationLifelong
TypesLinguistic Dysgraphia, Motor Dysgraphia, Spatial Dysgraphia
CausesGenetic and Neurological factors
Risk factorsFamily History, Co-occurring Developmental Disabilities
Differential diagnosisdyslexia, written language learning disability [1]

Dysgraphia is a neurological disorder[2] and learning disability that concerns impairments in written expression, which affects the ability to write, primarily handwriting, but also coherence. It is a specific learning disability (SLD) as well as a transcription disability, meaning that it is a writing disorder associated with impaired handwriting, orthographic coding and finger sequencing (the movement of muscles required to write).[3] It often overlaps with other learning disabilities and neurodevelopmental disorders such as speech impairment, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or developmental coordination disorder (DCD).[4]

In the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), dysgraphia is characterized as a neurodevelopmental disorder[5] under the umbrella category of specific learning disorder.[6] Dysgraphia is when one's writing skills are below those expected given a person's age measured through intelligence and age-appropriate education. The DSM is unclear in whether writing refers only to the motor skills involved in writing, or if it also includes orthographic skills and spelling.[4]

Dysgraphia should be distinguished from agraphia (sometimes called acquired dysgraphia), which is an acquired loss of the ability to write resulting from brain injury, progressive illness, or a stroke.[7]

The prevalence of dysgraphia throughout the world is not known, due to difficulties in diagnosis and lack of research.

  1. ^ Berninger VW, Richards T, Abbott RD (October 2015). "Differential Diagnosis of Dysgraphia, Dyslexia, and OWL LD: Behavioral and Neuroimaging Evidence". Reading and Writing. 28 (8): 1119–1153. doi:10.1007/s11145-015-9565-0. PMC 4553247. PMID 26336330.
  2. ^ "Dysgraphia". National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. Retrieved 2023-06-12.
  3. ^ Berninger VW, Wolf BJ (2009). Teaching Students with Dyslexia and Dysgraphia: Lessons from Teaching and Science. Baltimore, Maryland: Paul H. Brooks Publishing Co. ISBN 978-1-55766-934-6.
  4. ^ a b Nicolson RI, Fawcett AJ (January 2011). "Dyslexia, dysgraphia, procedural learning and the cerebellum". Cortex; A Journal Devoted to the Study of the Nervous System and Behavior. 47 (1): 117–27. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2009.08.016. PMID 19818437. S2CID 32228208.
  5. ^ "Neurodevelopmental Disorders in the DSM 5: Changes and Definitions". Psych Central. 2013-05-21. Retrieved 2023-06-12.
  6. ^ "APA Dictionary of Psychology". dictionary.apa.org. Retrieved 2023-06-12.
  7. ^ Rodrigues, Jaqueline de Carvalho; Fontoura, Denise Ren da; Salles, Jerusa Fumagalli de (September 2014). "Acquired dysgraphia in adults following right or left-hemisphere stroke". Dementia & Neuropsychologia. 8 (3): 236–242. doi:10.1590/S1980-57642014DN83000007. ISSN 1980-5764. PMC 5619400. PMID 29213909.