Early modern warfare

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Early modern warfare is the era of warfare during early modern period following medieval warfare. It is associated with the start of the widespread use of gunpowder and the development of suitable weapons to use the explosive, including artillery and firearms; for this reason the era is also referred to as the age of gunpowder warfare (a concept introduced by Michael Roberts in the 1950s).

Fortification techniques evolved rapidly due to the development of artillery. Firearms revolutionized warfare, diminishing the role of aristocracies and heavy cavalry. Early firearms, like arquebuses and muskets, gradually replaced bows and crossbows, leading to the introduction and decline of plate armor as firearms became more effective. Flintlock muskets became dominant by the 1690s, and the invention of the bayonet combined pikes and muskets, transforming infantry into the most crucial military force. Warfare also saw a shift towards larger armies and more devastating conflicts. The rise of centralized states and bureaucracies supported the new, massive armies, while the use of mercenaries declined. Military formations adapted to these changes. Infantry relied on columns, lines, and squares for battle, while cavalry transitioned to lighter roles focused on scouting and flanking. Despite the decline in heavy cavalry's dominance, cavalry charges remained effective under specific conditions, particularly against undisciplined infantry. The Age of Sail (usually dated as 1571–1862) was a period roughly corresponding to the early modern period and gunpowder dominated the era's naval tactics, including the use of gunpowder in naval artillery.

Wars became longer and more destructive, often causing widespread civilian suffering:

• In the Horn of Africa, the Adal's conquest of Ethiopia involving of the Ottomans, Mamluks and the Portuguese.
• In Asia, the Persia–Portugal war, the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598), the Mughal conquests, Nader's Campaigns, the Anglo-Mysore Wars, and China's Transition from Ming to Qing followed by the Ten Great Campaigns.
• All of the Great Powers of Europe and the Islamic gunpowder empires^[1] were actively fighting numerous wars throughout this period, grouped in rough geographical and chronological terms as:
  • The European wars of religion between the 1520s and the 1640s (including the Thirty Years' War, the Eighty Years' War and the Wars of the Three Kingdoms) and, the Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659), the Northern Wars, Polish–Swedish wars and Russo-Swedish Wars.
  • The Russo-Turkish Wars, Ottoman–Habsburg wars, and other Ottoman wars in Europe.
  • Throughout the 18th century the "Second Hundred Years' War", an umbrella term which includes the Nine Years' War, Seven Years' War, War of the Spanish Succession, War of the Austrian Succession, American War of Independence (American Revolutionary War), French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars of the late 18th to early 19th centuries which mark the end of this era.