Ghrelin (/ˈɡrɛlɪn/; or lenomorelin, INN) is a hormone primarily produced by enteroendocrine cells of the gastrointestinal tract, especially the stomach,[5][6] and is often called a "hunger hormone" because it increases the drive to eat.[6] Blood levels of ghrelin are highest before meals when hungry, returning to lower levels after mealtimes.[6][7] Ghrelin may help prepare for food intake[6][8] by increasing gastric motility and stimulating the secretion of gastric acid.[6]
Ghrelin activates cells in the anterior pituitary gland and hypothalamic arcuate nucleus,[6][9] including neuropeptide Y neurons that initiate appetite.[6][10] Ghrelin stimulates brain structures having a specific receptor – the growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1A (GHSR-1A).[6][11] Ghrelin also participates in regulation of reward cognition,[12] learning and memory, the sleep-wake cycle, taste sensation, reward behavior, and glucose metabolism.[6][13][14]
- ^ a b c GRCh38: Ensembl release 89: ENSG00000157017 – Ensembl, May 2017
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- ^ Kojima M, Hosoda H, Date Y, Nakazato M, Matsuo H, Kangawa K (December 1999). "Ghrelin is a growth-hormone-releasing acylated peptide from stomach". Nature. 402 (6762): 656–660. Bibcode:1999Natur.402..656K. doi:10.1038/45230. PMID 10604470. S2CID 753383.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Müller TD, Nogueiras R, Andermann ML, Andrews ZB, Anker SD, Argente J, et al. (June 2015). "Ghrelin". Molecular Metabolism. 4 (6): 437–460. doi:10.1016/j.molmet.2015.03.005. PMC 4443295. PMID 26042199.
- ^ Cummings DE, Purnell JQ, Frayo RS, Schmidova K, Wisse BE, Weigle DS (August 2001). "A preprandial rise in plasma ghrelin levels suggests a role in meal initiation in humans". Diabetes. 50 (8): 1714–1719. doi:10.2337/diabetes.50.8.1714. PMID 11473029.
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Schwartz_2000was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Dickson SL, Leng G, Robinson IC (March 1993). "Systemic administration of growth hormone-releasing peptide activates hypothalamic arcuate neurons". Neuroscience. 53 (2): 303–306. doi:10.1016/0306-4522(93)90197-n. PMID 8492908. S2CID 9757253.
- ^ Dickson SL, Luckman SM (February 1997). "Induction of c-fos messenger ribonucleic acid in neuropeptide Y and growth hormone (GH)-releasing factor neurons in the rat arcuate nucleus following systemic injection of the GH secretagogue, GH-releasing peptide-6". Endocrinology. 138 (2): 771–777. doi:10.1210/endo.138.2.4907. PMID 9003014.
- ^ Howard AD, Feighner SD, Cully DF, Arena JP, Liberator PA, Rosenblum CI, et al. (August 1996). "A receptor in pituitary and hypothalamus that functions in growth hormone release". Science. 273 (5277): 974–977. Bibcode:1996Sci...273..974H. doi:10.1126/science.273.5277.974. PMID 8688086. S2CID 32192383.
- ^ Nestler EJ, Hyman SE, Holtzman DM, Malenka RC (2015). "Neural and Neuroendocrine Control of the Internal Milieu". Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 245–267. ISBN 9780071827690.
- ^ Dickson SL, Egecioglu E, Landgren S, Skibicka KP, Engel JA, Jerlhag E (June 2011). "The role of the central ghrelin system in reward from food and chemical drugs" (PDF). Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology. 340 (1): 80–87. doi:10.1016/j.mce.2011.02.017. hdl:2077/26318. PMID 21354264. S2CID 206815322.
Whereas ghrelin emerged as a stomach-derived hormone involved in energy balance, hunger and meal initiation via hypothalamic circuits, it now seems clear that it also has a role in motivated reward-driven behaviours via activation of the so-called "cholinergic-dopaminergic reward link".
- ^ Le Moal M (2002). "Mesocorticolimbic Dopaminergic Neurons". In Davis KL, Charney D, Coyle JT, Nemeroff C (eds.). Neuropsychopharmacology : the fifth generation of progress : an official publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology (5th ed.). Philadelphia, Pa.: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 978-0781728379. Archived from the original on 5 February 2018. Retrieved 21 May 2014.