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In Hinduism, the conception of God varies in its diverse religio-philosophical traditions.[6] Hinduism comprises a wide range of beliefs about God and Divinity, such as henotheism, monotheism, polytheism, panentheism, pantheism, pandeism, monism, agnosticism, atheism, and nontheism.[9]
Forms of theism find mention in the Bhagavad Gita. Emotional or loving devotion (bhakti) to a primary god such as avatars of Vishnu (Krishna for example), Shiva, and Devi (as emerged in the early medieval period) is now known as the Bhakti movement.[10][11] Contemporary Hinduism can be categorized into four major theistic Hindu traditions: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism worship the Hindu deities Vishnu, Shiva, and Devi as the Supreme God respectively, or consider all Hindu deities as aspects of the same, Supreme Reality or the eternal and formless metaphysical Absolute, called Brahman in Hinduism, or, translated from Sanskrit terminology, Svayaṁ-Bhāgavan ("God Itself"). Other minor sects such as Ganapatya and Saura focus on the deities Ganesha or Surya as the Supreme.
Hindus following Advaita Vedānta consider ātman, the individual soul within every living being, to be the same as Vishnu, Shiva, or Devi,[12][13][14] or, alternatively, identical to the eternal and formless metaphysical Absolute called Brahman.[21] Such a philosophical system of Advaita or non-dualism as it developed in the Vedānta school of Hindu philosophy, especially as set out in the Upanishads, was popularized by the Indian philosopher, Vedic scholar, teacher, and mystic Ādi Śaṅkara in the 8th century CE, and has been vastly influential on Hinduism.[22][23][24] Therefore, Advaitins believe that Brahman is the sole Supreme Being (Para Brahman) and Ultimate Reality that exists beyond the (mis)perceived reality of a world of multiple objects and transitory persons.[25]
Hindus following Dvaita Vedānta consider that the jīvātman (individual self) and the eternal and formless metaphysical Absolute called Brahman in Hinduism exist as independent realities, and that these are fundamentally distinct.[26][27] Such a philosophical system of Dvaita or dualism as it developed in the Vedānta school of Hindu philosophy, especially as set out in the Vedas, was popularized by the Indian philosopher, Vedic scholar, and theologian Madhvācārya in the 13th century CE, and has been another major influence on Hinduism.[28] In particular, the influence of Madhvācārya's philosophy has been most prominent and pronounced on the Chaitanya school of Bengali Vaishnavism.[29]
- ^ Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga : 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120832329, pp. 77-78
- ^ a b Narayanan, Vasudha (2018) [2009]. "Gods, Goddesses, and Divine Powers (overview article)". In Basu, Helene; Jacobsen, Knut A.; Malinar, Angelika; Narayanan, Vasudha (eds.). Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Vol. 1. Leiden: Brill Publishers. doi:10.1163/2212-5019_BEH_COM_103. ISBN 978-90-04-17641-6. ISSN 2212-5019.
- ^ a b Lipner, Julius J. (2010) [1998]. Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices (Second ed.). London and New York: Routledge. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-415-45677-7. OCLC 698586925.
[...] one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu.
- ^ Lester Kurtz (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict, ISBN 978-0123695031, Academic Press, 2008
- ^ MK Gandhi, The Essence of Hinduism, Editor: VB Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see page 3; According to Gandhi, "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu."
- ^ [2][3][4][5]
- ^ Chakravarti, Sitansu S. (1991). "The Hindu Perspective". Hinduism, a Way of Life. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 70–71. ISBN 978-81-208-0899-7. OCLC 925707936.
According to Hinduism, different religions are but alternate ways toward the same spiritual goal. Thus, although spirituality is a necessary quest for human beings, the religion one follows does not have to be the same for everyone. [...] The first Hindu scripture, the Rigveda, dating back to at least 4.000 years, says: "Truth is one, though the wise call it by different names." The Mahabharata, which includes the Gita, is replete with sayings meaning that religious streams, though separate, head toward the same ocean of divinity.
- ^ Smart, Ninian (10 November 2020) [26 July 1999]. "Polytheism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Edinburgh: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Archived from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 25 April 2021.
- ^ [2][3][7][8]
- ^ June McDaniel Hinduism, in John Corrigan, The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Emotion, (2007) Oxford University Press, 544 pages, pp. 52-53 ISBN 0-19-517021-0
- ^ Karen Pechelis (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195351903, pages 3-4, 15-28
- ^ Mariasusai Dhavamony (1999), Hindu Spirituality, GB Press, ISBN 978-8876528187, page 129
- ^ Olivelle 1992, pp. 80–81, 210 with footnotes.
- ^ Ganesh Tagare (2002), The Pratyabhijñā Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120818927, pages 16–19
- ^ a b Leeming, David A. (2014). "Brahman". In Leeming, David A. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion (2nd ed.). Boston: Springer Verlag. p. 197. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-6086-2_9052. ISBN 978-1-4614-6087-9.
For Hindus, especially those in the Advaita Vedanta tradition, Brahman is the undifferentiated reality underlying all existence. Brahman is the eternal first cause present everywhere and nowhere, beyond time and space, the indefinable Absolute. The gods are incarnations of Brahman. It can be said that everything that is Brahman. And it can be argued that Brahman is a monotheistic concept or at least a monistic one, since all gods – presumably of any tradition – are manifestations of Brahman, real only because Brahman exists.
- ^ a b Halligan, Fredrica R. (2014). "Atman". In Leeming, David A. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion (2nd ed.). Boston: Springer Verlag. pp. 134–135. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-6086-2_54. ISBN 978-1-4614-6087-9.
- ^ a b Ram-Prasad, Chakravarthi (2018) [2010]. "Brahman". In Basu, Helene; Jacobsen, Knut A.; Malinar, Angelika; Narayanan, Vasudha (eds.). Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Vol. 2. Leiden: Brill Publishers. doi:10.1163/2212-5019_BEH_COM_2050070. ISBN 978-90-04-17893-9. ISSN 2212-5019.
- ^ William Wainwright (2012), Concepts of God Archived 23 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University
- ^ U Murthy (1979), Samskara, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195610796, page 150
- ^ a b Dissanayake, Wimal (1993). "The Body in Indian Theory and Practice". In Kasulis, Thomas P.; Ames, Roger T.; Dissanayake, Wimal (eds.). Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice. SUNY Series: The Body in Culture, History, and Religion. Albany, New York: SUNY Press. p. 39. ISBN 0-7914-1079-X. OCLC 24174772.
The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought, and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self. [...] If we adhere to the thought that the Brahman is the cosmic principle governing the universe and Atman as its physical correlate, the essence of Upanishadic thought can be succinctly stated in the formula Brahman = Atman.
- ^ [15][16][17][18][19][20]
- ^ Indich 2000, p. vii.
- ^ Fowler 2002, pp. 240–243.
- ^ Brannigan 2009, p. 19, Quote: "Advaita Vedanta is the most influential philosophical system in Hindu thought.".
- ^ [15][16][17][20]
- ^ Ignatius Puthiadam (1985). Viṣṇu, the Ever Free: A Study of the Mādhva Concept of God. Dialogue Series. p. 227.
- ^ Bryant, Edwin (2007). Krishna: A Sourcebook (Chapter 15 by Deepak Sarma). Oxford University Press. p. 358. ISBN 978-0195148923.
- ^ N. V. Isaeva (1993). Shankara and Indian Philosophy. SUNY Press. p. 253. ISBN 978-0791412817.
- ^ B. N. Krishnamurti Sharma (1986). Philosophy of Śrī Madhvācārya. Motilal Banarsidass Publications. p. 22. ISBN 9788120800687.
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