The Great Depression was a severe global economic downturn from 1929 to 1939. The period was characterized by high rates of unemployment and poverty; drastic reductions in liquidity, industrial production, and trade; and widespread bank and business failures around the world. The economic contagion began in 1929 in the United States, the largest economy in the world, with the devastating Wall Street stock market crash of October 1929 often considered the beginning of the Depression.
The Depression was preceded by a period of industrial growth and social development known as the "Roaring Twenties". Much of the profit generated by the boom was invested in speculation, such as on the stock market, which resulted in growing wealth inequality. Banks were subject to minimal regulation under laissez-faire economic policies, resulting in loose lending and widespread debt. By 1929, declining spending had led to reductions in manufacturing output and rising unemployment. Share values continued to rise until the Wall Street crash, after which the slide continued for three years, which was accompanied by a loss of confidence in the financial system. By 1933, the U.S. unemployment rate had risen to 25 percent, about one-third of farmers had lost their land, and about half of the country's 25,000 banks had gone out of business. Many people, unable to pay mortgages or rent, became homeless and relied on begging or charities to feed themselves. The U.S. federal government initially did little to help. President Herbert Hoover, like many of his fellow Republicans, believed in the need to balance the national budget and was unwilling to implement expensive welfare spending. In 1930, Hoover signed the Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act, which taxed imports with the intention of encouraging buyers to purchase American products, which worsened the Depression because foreign governments retaliated with tariffs on American exports. In 1932, Hoover established the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, which offered loans to businesses and support to local governments. In the 1932 election, Hoover was defeated by Franklin D. Roosevelt, who from 1933 pursued a series of "New Deal" policies and programs to provide relief and create jobs, including the Civilian Conservation Corps, Federal Emergency Relief Administration, Tennessee Valley Authority, and Works Progress Administration. Historians disagree on the effects of the New Deal, with some claiming that the policies prolonged the Depression instead of shortening it.
Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide gross domestic product (GDP) fell by an estimated 15%; in the U.S., the Depression resulted in a 30% contraction in GDP.[1] Recovery varied greatly around the world. Some economies, such as the U.S., Germany and Japan started to recover by the mid-1930s; others, like France, did not return to pre-shock growth rates until later in the decade.[2] The Depression had devastating economic effects on both wealthy and poor countries: all experienced drops in personal income, prices (deflation), tax revenues, and profits. International trade fell by more than 50%, and unemployment in some countries rose as high as 33%.[3] Cities around the world, especially those dependent on heavy industry, were heavily affected. Construction virtually halted in many countries, and farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by up to 60%.[4][5][6] Faced with plummeting demand and few job alternatives, areas dependent on primary sector industries suffered the most.[7] The outbreak of World War II in 1939 ended the Depression, as it stimulated factory production, providing jobs for women as militaries absorbed large numbers of young, unemployed men.
The precise causes for the Great Depression are disputed. One set of historians, for example, focuses on non-monetary economic causes. Among these, some regard the Wall Street crash itself as the main cause; others consider that the crash was a mere symptom of more general economic trends of the time, which had already been underway in the late 1920s.[3][8] A contrasting set of views, which rose to prominence in the later part of the 20th century,[9] ascribes a more prominent role to failures of monetary policy. According to those authors, while general economic trends can explain the emergence of the downtown, they fail to account for its severity and longevity; they argue that these were caused by the lack of an adequate response to the crises of liquidity that followed the initial economic shock of 1929 and the subsequent bank failures accompanied by a general collapse of the financial markets.[1]
- ^ a b Friedman, Milton; Schwartz, Anna Jacobson (2008). A monetary history of the United States 1867-1960. Princeton paperbacks (9th pbk. printing, 22nd printing ed.). Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-00354-2.
- ^ Lewis, William Arthur (2003). Economic survey: 1919 - 1939. International economics (Reprint [der Ausg.] 1949 ed.). London [u.a.]: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-31359-9.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ a b Frank, Robert H.; Bernanke, Ben S. (2007). Principles of Macroeconomics (3rd ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. p. 98. ISBN 978-0-07-319397-7.
- ^ "Commodity Data". U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Archived from the original on 3 June 2019. Retrieved 30 November 2008.
- ^ Cochrane, Willard W. (1958). Farm Prices, Myth and Reality. p. 15.
- ^ "World Economic Survey 1932–33". League of Nations: 43.
- ^ Mitchell, Depression Decade
- ^ "Great Depression" Archived 9 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Encyclopædia Britannica
- ^ Thomas S. Coleman (2019). Milton Friedman, Anna Schwartz, and A Monetary History of the US. Draft Lecture, Harris School of Public Policy, University of Chicago.