History of Ukraine

Topographic map of Ukraine, with borders, cities and towns
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History of Ukraine
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The history of Ukraine spans thousands of years, rooted in the Pontic steppe, a region central to the spread of the Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages, Indo-European migrations, and domestication of the horse. In antiquity, the area was part of Scythia and later inhabited by Goths, Huns, and Slavic tribes. Southern Ukraine was colonized by the Greeks and Romans, leaving a significant cultural heritage.[1][2][3]

Ukraine enters into written history with the establishment of the medieval state of Kievan Rus'. In Dnieper Ukraine, the tribe of Polans served as the organizers of Kievan Rus' state, beginning to name themself and their land Rus' in 9th century, a word that probably derived from Varangians, who laid the foundation of the state itself.[4][5][6] It emerged as one of the most powerful and advanced nations of Europe at that time, with Kyiv meeting its golden age and Christianization under Vladimir the Great and Yaroslav the Wise. Kievan Rus' started to disintegrate in High Middle Ages, with Kievan monarchs competing and fighting over the throne in the core Rus' land, while experiencing Turkic raids from Southern Ukraine.[7] In 13th century Kievan Rus' was destroyed by the Mongol invasion, leaving its core in Dnieper Ukraine absolutely devastated, but the Kingdom of Ruthenia (Galicia-Volhynia) succeeded Kievan Rus' under King Daniel.[8]

In 14th and 15th centuries, majority of Ukrainian territories became part of Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Ruthenia and Samogitia, while Galicia and Zakarpattia came under Polish and Hungarian rule. Lithuania kept the local Ruthenian traditions, and was gradually influenced by Ruthenian language, law and culture, until Lithuania itself came under Polish influence, following the Union of Krewo and Union of Lublin, resulting in two countries merging into Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, leaving Ukrainian lands under the dominance of Polish crown.[9] Meanwhile Southern Ukraine was dominated by Golden Horde and then Crimean Khanate, which came under protection of the Ottoman Empire, major regional power in and around Black Sea, which also had some of its own directly-administrated areas as well.

In the 17th century, the Cossack rebellion led by Bohdan Khmelnytsky established the Cossack Hetmanate, which allied with Muscovy in 1654 through the Treaty of Pereyaslav. The exact nature of the relationship established by this treaty between the Cossack Hetmanate and Tsardom of Moscow remains a matter of scholarly controversy.[10] This led to increasing Muscovy dominance, culminating in the 18th century with the partition of Polish-controlled territories and the incorporation of Ukrainian lands into the Russian Empire and Habsburg Austria.[11]: 199 

The 20th century began with a renewed struggle for Ukrainian statehood. Following the collapse of empires during World War I, the Ukrainian People’s Republic (UPR) was proclaimed in 1917 with Kyiv as its capital. Meanwhile, in the western territories, the West Ukrainian People’s Republic (WUPR) was established in 1918, centered in Lviv. Both republics sought to unite, forming the Unification Act (Act Zluky) on 22 January 1919.[12] However, their independence was short-lived. The UPR faced constant military conflict with Bolshevik forces, Poland, and White Army factions. By 1921, following the Soviet-Ukrainian War, Ukrainian lands were divided: the eastern territories became the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (part of the USSR), while western Ukraine was absorbed by Poland, Romania, and Czechoslovakia.[11]: 537 

Under Soviet rule, initial policies of Ukrainianization gave way to oppressive Russification. The Holodomor famine of 1932–1933, a man-made disaster, caused the deaths of 4-5 millions Ukrainians.[13]: §§ 8.1.3  During World War II, Ukraine endured brutal occupations by both Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. The Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) fought for independence, though parts of Ukrainian society also collaborated with occupying forces. Post-war, Soviet control was reestablished, and Crimea was transferred to Ukraine in 1954.

Ukraine became independent when the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991. This started a period of transition to a market economy, in which Ukraine suffered an eight-year recession.[14] Subsequently however, the economy experienced a high increase in GDP growth until it plunged during the Great Recession.[15] This period was marked by economic challenges, the rise of nationalism, and growing tensions with Russian Federation. In 2013, the Euromaidan protests began in response to President Viktor Yanukovych’s rejection of an EU association agreement. The Revolution of Dignity followed, leading to Yanukovych’s ousting. Russia annexed Crimea in 2014 and supported separatist movements in Donbas, initiating the ongoing Russo-Ukrainian War. This escalated on 24 February 2022, with Russia’s full-scale invasion, marking a critical phase in Ukraine’s fight for sovereignty and territorial integrity.

  1. ^ Matossian Shaping World History p. 43
  2. ^ "What We Theorize – When and Where Did Domestication Occur". International Museum of the Horse. Retrieved 12 December 2010.[permanent dead link‍]
  3. ^ "Horsey-aeology, Binary Black Holes, Tracking Red Tides, Fish Re-evolution, Walk Like a Man, Fact or Fiction". Quirks and Quarks Podcast with Bob Macdonald. CBC Radio. 7 March 2009. Retrieved 18 September 2010.(Link does not exist anymore)
  4. ^ Logan, F. Donald (2005). The Vikings in History. Taylor & Francis. p. 184. ISBN 9780415327565.
  5. ^ Encyclopedia of Ukraine, Kyivan Rus
  6. ^ "Polianians". www.encyclopediaofukraine.com. Retrieved 26 October 2024.
  7. ^ Orest Subtelny. "Ukraine. A History" (Fourth edition). Page 38.
  8. ^ Cite error: The named reference Pelenski was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  9. ^ Butterwick, Richard (2021). The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, 1733–1795. Yale University Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-300-25220-0.
  10. ^ Kroll, Piotr (2008). Od ugody hadziackiej do Cudnowa. Kozaczyzna między Rzecząpospolitą a Moskwą w latach 1658-1660. doi:10.31338/uw.9788323518808. ISBN 9788323518808.
  11. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference nvr 1969 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  12. ^ Cite error: The named reference subtelny-362 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  13. ^ Cite error: The named reference eb Makuchand was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  14. ^ "Macroeconomic Indicators". National Bank of Ukraine. Archived from the original on 21 October 2007.
  15. ^ Inozmi, "Ukraine – macroeconomic economic situation" Archived 22 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine. June 2009.