List of cognitive biases

For common errors in logic, see List of fallacies.

Cognitive biases are systematic patterns of deviation from norm and/or rationality in judgment. They are often studied in psychology, sociology and behavioral economics.[1]

Although the reality of most of these biases is confirmed by reproducible research,[2][3] there are often controversies about how to classify these biases or how to explain them.[4] Several theoretical causes are known for some cognitive biases, which provides a classification of biases by their common generative mechanism (such as noisy information-processing[5]). Gerd Gigerenzer has criticized the framing of cognitive biases as errors in judgment, and favors interpreting them as arising from rational deviations from logical thought.[6]

Explanations include information-processing rules (i.e., mental shortcuts), called heuristics, that the brain uses to produce decisions or judgments. Biases have a variety of forms and appear as cognitive ("cold") bias, such as mental noise,[5] or motivational ("hot") bias, such as when beliefs are distorted by wishful thinking. Both effects can be present at the same time.[7][8]

There are also controversies over some of these biases as to whether they count as useless or irrational, or whether they result in useful attitudes or behavior. For example, when getting to know others, people tend to ask leading questions which seem biased towards confirming their assumptions about the person. However, this kind of confirmation bias has also been argued to be an example of social skill; a way to establish a connection with the other person.[9]

Although this research overwhelmingly involves human subjects, some findings that demonstrate bias have been found in non-human animals as well. For example, loss aversion has been shown in monkeys and hyperbolic discounting has been observed in rats, pigeons, and monkeys.[10]

  1. ^ Haselton MG, Nettle D, Andrews PW (2005). "The evolution of cognitive bias" (PDF). In Buss DM (ed.). The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc. pp. 724–746.
  2. ^ "Cognitive Bias – Association for Psychological Science". www.psychologicalscience.org. Retrieved 2018-10-10.
  3. ^ Thomas O (2018-01-19). "Two decades of cognitive bias research in entrepreneurship: What do we know and where do we go from here?". Management Review Quarterly. 68 (2): 107–143. doi:10.1007/s11301-018-0135-9. ISSN 2198-1620. S2CID 148611312.
  4. ^ Dougherty MR, Gettys CF, Ogden EE (1999). "MINERVA-DM: A memory processes model for judgments of likelihood" (PDF). Psychological Review. 106 (1): 180–209. doi:10.1037/0033-295x.106.1.180.
  5. ^ a b Hilbert M (March 2012). "Toward a synthesis of cognitive biases: how noisy information processing can bias human decision making". Psychological Bulletin. 138 (2): 211–37. doi:10.1037/a0025940. PMID 22122235.
  6. ^ Gigerenzer G (2006). "Bounded and Rational". In Stainton RJ (ed.). Contemporary Debates in Cognitive Science. Blackwell. p. 129. ISBN 978-1-4051-1304-5.
  7. ^ MacCoun RJ (1998). "Biases in the interpretation and use of research results" (PDF). Annual Review of Psychology. 49 (1): 259–287. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.259. PMID 15012470.
  8. ^ Nickerson RS (1998). "Confirmation Bias: A Ubiquitous Phenomenon in Many Guises" (PDF). Review of General Psychology. 2 (2): 175–220 [198]. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175. S2CID 8508954.
  9. ^ Dardenne B, Leyens JP (1995). "Confirmation Bias as a Social Skill". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 21 (11): 1229–1239. doi:10.1177/01461672952111011. S2CID 146709087.
  10. ^ Alexander WH, Brown JW (June 2010). "Hyperbolically discounted temporal difference learning". Neural Computation. 22 (6): 1511–1527. doi:10.1162/neco.2010.08-09-1080. PMC 3005720. PMID 20100071.