Obesity

For the journal, see Obesity (journal).

Obesity
Three silhouettes depicting the outlines of an optimally sized (left), overweight (middle), and obese person (right).
Silhouettes and waist circumferences representing optimal, overweight, and obese
SpecialtyEndocrinology
SymptomsIncreased fat[1]
ComplicationsCardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes, obstructive sleep apnea, certain types of cancer, osteoarthritis, depression[2][3]
CausesExcessive consumption of energy-dense foods, sedentary work and lifestyles and lack of physical activity, changes in modes of transportation, urbanization, lack of supportive policies, lack of access to a healthy diet, genetics[1][4]
Diagnostic methodBMI > 30 kg/m2[1]
PreventionSocietal changes, changes in the food industry, access to a healthy lifestyle, personal choices[1]
TreatmentDiet, exercise, medications, surgery[5][6]
PrognosisReduced life expectancy[2]
FrequencyOver 1 billion / 12.5% (2022)[7]
Deaths2.8 million people per year
Part of a series on
Human body weight
General concepts
Medical concepts
Measurements
Related conditions
Obesity-associated morbidity
Management of obesity
Social aspects

Obesity is a medical condition, sometimes considered a disease,[8][9][10] in which excess body fat has accumulated to such an extent that it can potentially have negative effects on health. People are classified as obese when their body mass index (BMI)—a person's weight divided by the square of the person's height—is over 30 kg/m2; the range 25–30 kg/m2 is defined as overweight.[1] Some East Asian countries use lower values to calculate obesity.[11] Obesity is a major cause of disability and is correlated with various diseases and conditions, particularly cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes, obstructive sleep apnea, certain types of cancer, and osteoarthritis.[2][12][13]

Obesity has individual, socioeconomic, and environmental causes. Some known causes are diet, physical activity, automation, urbanization, genetic susceptibility, medications, mental disorders, economic policies, endocrine disorders, and exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals.[1][4][14][15]

While a majority of obese individuals at any given time attempt to lose weight and are often successful, maintaining weight loss long-term is rare.[16] There is no effective, well-defined, evidence-based intervention for preventing obesity. Obesity prevention requires a complex approach, including interventions at societal, community, family, and individual levels.[1][13] Changes to diet as well as exercising are the main treatments recommended by health professionals.[2] Diet quality can be improved by reducing the consumption of energy-dense foods, such as those high in fat or sugars, and by increasing the intake of dietary fiber, if these dietary choices are available, affordable, and accessible.[1] Medications can be used, along with a suitable diet, to reduce appetite or decrease fat absorption.[5] If diet, exercise, and medication are not effective, a gastric balloon or surgery may be performed to reduce stomach volume or length of the intestines, leading to feeling full earlier, or a reduced ability to absorb nutrients from food.[6][17]

Obesity is a leading preventable cause of death worldwide, with increasing rates in adults and children.[18] In 2022, over 1 billion people were obese worldwide (879 million adults and 159 million children), representing more than a double of adult cases (and four times higher than cases among children) registered in 1990.[7][19] Obesity is more common in women than in men.[1] Today, obesity is stigmatized in most of the world. Conversely, some cultures, past and present, have a favorable view of obesity, seeing it as a symbol of wealth and fertility.[2][20] The World Health Organization, the US, Canada, Japan, Portugal, Germany, the European Parliament and medical societies, e.g. the American Medical Association, classify obesity as a disease. Others, such as the UK, do not.[21][22][23][24]

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i "Obesity and overweight Fact sheet N°311". WHO. January 2015. Retrieved 2 February 2016.
  2. ^ a b c d e Haslam DW, James WP (October 2005). "Obesity". Lancet (Review). 366 (9492): 1197–1209. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67483-1. PMID 16198769. S2CID 208791491.
  3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Luppino2010rev was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  4. ^ a b Yazdi FT, Clee SM, Meyre D (2015). "Obesity genetics in mouse and human: back and forth, and back again". PeerJ. 3: e856. doi:10.7717/peerj.856. PMC 4375971. PMID 25825681.
  5. ^ a b Yanovski SZ, Yanovski JA (January 2014). "Long-term drug treatment for obesity: a systematic and clinical review". JAMA (Review). 311 (1): 74–86. doi:10.1001/jama.2013.281361. PMC 3928674. PMID 24231879.
  6. ^ a b Colquitt JL, Pickett K, Loveman E, Frampton GK (August 2014). "Surgery for weight loss in adults". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (Meta-analysis, Review). 2014 (8): CD003641. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003641.pub4. PMC 9028049. PMID 25105982.
  7. ^ Powell-Wiley TM, Poirier P, Burke LE, Després JP, Gordon-Larsen P, Lavie CJ, et al. (May 2021). "Obesity and Cardiovascular Disease: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association". Circulation. 143 (21): e984–e1010. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000973. PMC 8493650. PMID 33882682.
  8. ^ CDC (21 March 2022). "Causes and Consequences of Childhood Obesity". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Archived from the original on 15 April 2022. Retrieved 18 August 2022.
  9. ^ "Policy Finder". American Medical Association (AMA). Retrieved 18 August 2022.
  10. ^ Kanazawa M, Yoshiike N, Osaka T, Numba Y, Zimmet P, Inoue S (2005). "Criteria and Classification of Obesity in Japan and Asia-Oceania". Nutrition and Fitness: Obesity, the Metabolic Syndrome, Cardiovascular Disease, and Cancer. World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics. Vol. 94. pp. 1–12. doi:10.1159/000088200. ISBN 978-3-8055-7944-5. PMID 16145245. S2CID 19963495.
  11. ^ "Obesity - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 30 November 2021.
  12. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  13. ^ Kassotis CD, Vandenberg LN, Demeneix BA, Porta M, Slama R, Trasande L (August 2020). "Endocrine-disrupting chemicals: economic, regulatory, and policy implications". The Lancet. Diabetes & Endocrinology. 8 (8): 719–730. doi:10.1016/S2213-8587(20)30128-5. PMC 7437819. PMID 32707119.
  14. ^ Bleich S, Cutler D, Murray C, Adams A (2008). "Why is the developed world obese?". Annual Review of Public Health (Research Support). 29: 273–295. doi:10.1146/annurev.publhealth.29.020907.090954. PMID 18173389.
  15. ^ Strohacker K, Carpenter KC, McFarlin BK (15 July 2009). "Consequences of Weight Cycling: An Increase in Disease Risk?". International Journal of Exercise Science. 2 (3): 191–201. doi:10.70252/ASAQ8961. PMC 4241770. PMID 25429313.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: ignored DOI errors (link)
  16. ^ Imaz I, Martínez-Cervell C, García-Alvarez EE, Sendra-Gutiérrez JM, González-Enríquez J (July 2008). "Safety and effectiveness of the intragastric balloon for obesity. A meta-analysis". Obesity Surgery. 18 (7): 841–846. doi:10.1007/s11695-007-9331-8. PMID 18459025. S2CID 10220216.
  17. ^ Encyclopedia of Mental Health (2 ed.). Academic Press. 2015. p. 158. ISBN 978-0-12-397753-3.
  18. ^ "One in eight people are now living with obesity". World Health Organization. 1 March 2024. Retrieved 1 March 2024.
  19. ^ Woodhouse R (2008). "Obesity in Art – A Brief Overview". Obesity in art: a brief overview. Frontiers of Hormone Research. Vol. 36. pp. 271–86. doi:10.1159/000115370. ISBN 978-3-8055-8429-6. PMID 18230908.
  20. ^ "The implications of defining obesity as a disease: a report from the Association for the Study of Obesity 2021 annual conference - eClinicalMedicine".
  21. ^ Cite error: The named reference USGuidelines2013 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  22. ^ Pollack A (18 June 2013). "A.M.A. Recognizes Obesity as a Disease". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 24 June 2013.
  23. ^ Weinstock M (21 June 2013). "The Facts About Obesity". H&HN. American Hospital Association. Archived from the original on 9 September 2013. Retrieved 24 June 2013.