"Female genital mutilation comprises all procedures involving partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons" (WHO, UNICEF, UNFPA, 1997).[8]
There is a widespread view among practitioners of female genital mutilation (FGM) that it is a religious requirement,[2][3][4][9] although prevalence rates often vary according to geography and ethnic group.[10] There is an ongoing debate about the extent to which the practice's continuation is influenced by custom, social pressure, lack of health-care information, and the position of women in society.[a] The procedures confer no health benefits and can lead to serious health problems.[8][12]
FGM is practised predominantly within certain Muslim societies,[13] but it also exists within some adjacent Christian and animist groups.[14] The practice isn't required by most forms of Islam and fatwas have been issued forbidding FGM,[15] favouring it,[16] or leaving the decision to parents but advising against it.[17][18] However, FGM was introduced in Southeast Asia by the spread of Shafi'i version of Islamic jurisprudence, which considers the practice obligatory.[2][3][4][6][19] There is mention of it on a Greek papyrus from 163 BCE and a possible indirect reference to it on a coffin from Egypt's Middle Kingdom (c. 1991–1786 BCE).[20] It has been found among Coptic Christians in Egypt, Orthodox Christians in Ethiopia, and Protestants and Catholics in Sudan and Kenya.[21] The only Jewish group known to have practiced it are the Beta Israel of Ethiopia.[b]
^ abname="aflm">Feillard, Andree; Morcoes, Lies (1998). "Female Circumcision in Indonesia: To Islamize in Ceremony or Secrecy". Archipel. 56: 337–367. doi:10.3406/arch.1998.3495.
^Ali, Kecia (2006). Sexual Ethics And Islam: Feminist Reflections on Qur'an, Hadith, and Jurisprudence. Oxford: Oneworld Publications, p. 100.
Clarence-Smith, William G. (2012). "Female Circumcision in Southeast Asia since the Coming of Islam", in Chitra Raghavan and James P. Levine (eds.). Self-Determination and Women's Rights in Muslim Societies. Brandeis University Press, pp. 124–146. ISBN978-1611682809
Ghadially, R. (1991). "All for 'Izzat': The Practice of Female Circumcision among Bohra Muslims." Manushi, 66, Sept—Oct, pp. 17—20.
Hefner, Robert (1985). Hindu Javanese: Tengger Tradition and Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 34–39, 142–147, 255–258.
^ abCite error: The named reference WHO2017 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^Yoder, Stanley P.; Yang, Shanxiao; Johansen, Elise (29 May 2013). "Estimates of Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting in 27 African Countries and Yemen". Studies in Family Planning. 44 (2): (189–204), 196–198. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00352.x. JSTOR23408619. PMID23720002.
^Rouzi, Abdulrahim A. (2013). "Facts and controversies on female genital mutilation and Islam". The European Journal of Contraception & Reproductive Health Care. 18 (1): 10–14. doi:10.3109/13625187.2012.749982. PMID23286241. S2CID207523575.
^Cite error: The named reference El-Damanhoury2013 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^Ali, Kecia (2006). Sexual Ethics And Islam: Feminist Reflections on Qur'an, Hadith, and Jurisprudence. Oxford: Oneworld Publications, p. 100.
Clarence-Smith, William G. (2012). "Female Circumcision in Southeast Asia since the Coming of Islam", in Chitra Raghavan and James P. Levine (eds.). Self-Determination and Women's Rights in Muslim Societies. Brandeis University Press, pp. 124–146. ISBN978-1611682809
Ghadially, R. (1991). "All for 'Izzat': The Practice of Female Circumcision amongBohra Muslims." Manushi, 66, Sept—Oct, pp. 17—20.
Hefner, Robert (1985). Hindu Javanese: Tengger Tradition and Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 34–39, 142–147, 255–258.
^Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing Cut or Ritual Mutilation?: Some Remarks on the Practice of Female and Male Circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): (317–338), 330. doi:10.1086/385184. JSTOR3080631. PMID11590895. S2CID38351439.
^Papademetriou, George C. (2011).Two Traditions, One Space: Orthodox Christians and Muslims in Dialogue. Somerset Hall Press, p. 138. ISBN978-1-935-24406-6
^Cohen, Shaye J. D. (2005). Why Aren't Jewish Women Circumcised? Gender and Covenant In Judaism, Oakland: University of California Press, p. 59.
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