Smoking and pregnancy

Tobacco smoking during pregnancy causes many detrimental effects on health and reproduction, in addition to the general health effects of tobacco. A number of studies have shown that tobacco use is a significant factor in miscarriages among pregnant smokers, and that it contributes to a number of other threats to the health of the foetus.[1][2][3]

Because of the associated risks, people are advised not to smoke before, during or after pregnancy. If this is not possible, however, reducing the daily number of cigarettes smoked can minimize the risks for both the mother and child. This is especially true for people in developing countries, where breastfeeding is essential for the child's overall nutritional status.[4]

  1. ^ Avşar TS, McLeod H, Jackson L (March 2021). "Health outcomes of smoking during pregnancy and the postpartum period: an umbrella review". BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth. 21 (1): 254. doi:10.1186/s12884-021-03729-1. PMC 7995767. PMID 33771100.
  2. ^ Ness RB, Grisso JA, Hirschinger N, Markovic N, Shaw LM, Day NL, Kline J (February 1999). "Cocaine and tobacco use and the risk of spontaneous abortion". The New England Journal of Medicine. 340 (5): 333–339. doi:10.1056/NEJM199902043400501. PMID 9929522.
  3. ^ Oncken C, Kranzler H, O'Malley P, Gendreau P, Campbell WA (May 2002). "The effect of cigarette smoking on fetal heart rate characteristics". Obstetrics and Gynecology. 99 (5 Pt 1): 751–755. doi:10.1016/S0029-7844(02)01948-8. PMID 11978283. S2CID 38760373.
  4. ^ Najdawi F, Faouri M (May 1999). "Maternal smoking and breastfeeding". Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal. 5 (3): 450–456. doi:10.26719/1999.5.3.450. PMID 10793823. S2CID 30513271.