Sniffing (behavior)

For the act of clearing nasal mucus, see Sniffle.
Two dogs sniffing each other

Sniffing is a perceptually-relevant behavior, defined as the active sampling of odors through the nasal cavity for the purpose of information acquisition. This behavior, displayed by all terrestrial vertebrates, is typically identified based upon changes in respiratory frequency and/or amplitude,[1][2] and is often studied in the context of odor guided behaviors and olfactory perceptual tasks. Sniffing is quantified by measuring intra-nasal pressure or flow or air[3][4][5][6] or, while less accurate, through a strain gauge on the chest to measure total respiratory volume.[7] Strategies for sniffing behavior vary depending upon the animal, with small animals (rats, mice, hamsters) displaying sniffing frequencies ranging from 4 to 12 Hz[2][3][8] but larger animals (humans) sniffing at much lower frequencies, usually less than 2 Hz.[7][9] Subserving sniffing behaviors, evidence for an "olfactomotor" circuit in the brain exists,[10][11] wherein perception or expectation of an odor can trigger brain respiratory center to allow for the modulation of sniffing frequency and amplitude and thus acquisition of odor information. Sniffing is analogous to other stimulus sampling behaviors, including visual saccades, active touch, and whisker movements in small animals (viz., whisking).[12][13] Atypical sniffing has been reported in cases of neurological disorders, especially those disorders characterized by impaired motor function and olfactory perception.[14][15]

  1. ^ Welker, WI (1964). "Analysis of sniffing in the albino rat". Behaviour. 22 (3–4): 223–244. doi:10.1163/156853964x00030.
  2. ^ a b Youngentob, S.L.; Mozell, M. M.; Sheehe, P. R.; Hornung, D. E. (1987). "A quantitative analysis of sniffing strategies in rats performing odor discrimination tasks". Physiol Behav. 41 (1): 59–69. doi:10.1016/0031-9384(87)90131-4. PMID 3685154. S2CID 43798119.
  3. ^ a b Wesson, D. W.; Donahou, T. N.; Johnson, M. O.; Wachowiak, M (2008). "Sniffing behavior of mice during performance in odor-guided tasks". Chem Senses. 33 (7): 581–596. doi:10.1093/chemse/bjn029. PMC 2533419. PMID 18534995.
  4. ^ Verhagen, J. V.; Wesson, D. W.; Netoff, T. I.; White, J. A.; Wachowiak, M (2007). "Sniffing controls an adaptive filter of sensory input to the olfactory bulb". Nat Neurosci. 10 (5): 631–639. doi:10.1038/nn1892. PMID 17450136. S2CID 15324047.
  5. ^ Uchida, N; Mainen, Z. F (2003). "Speed and accuracy of olfactory discrimination in the rat". Nat Neurosci. 6 (11): 1224–1229. doi:10.1038/nn1142. PMID 14566341. S2CID 205430292.
  6. ^ Macrides, F; Eichenbaum, H. B.; Forbes, W. B (1982). "Temporal relationship between sniffing and the limbic theta rhythm during odor discrimination reversal learning". J Neurosci. 2 (12): 1705–1711. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.02-12-01705.1982. PMC 6564372. PMID 7143047.
  7. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Laing was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  8. ^ Vanderwolf, C. H. (1992). "Hippocampal activity, olfaction, and sniffing: an olfactory input to the dentate gyrus". Brain Research. 593 (2): 197–208. doi:10.1016/0006-8993(92)91308-2. PMID 1450928. S2CID 12799792.
  9. ^ Cite error: The named reference Sobel was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  10. ^ Vanderwolf, C. H. (2001). "The hippocampus as an olfacto-motor mechanism: were the classical anatomists right after all?". Behav Brain Res. 127 (1–2): 25–47. doi:10.1016/s0166-4328(01)00354-0. PMID 11718883. S2CID 21832964.
  11. ^ Johnson, B. N.; Mainland, J. D.; Sobel, N. (2003). "Rapid olfactory processing implicates subcortical control of an olfactomotor system". J Neurophysiol. 90 (2): 1084–1094. doi:10.1152/jn.00115.2003. PMID 12711718. S2CID 16446791.
  12. ^ Uchida, N.; Kepecs, A.; Mainen, Z. F. (2006). "Seeing at a glance, smelling in a whiff: rapid forms of perceptual decision making". Nat Rev Neurosci. 7 (6): 485–491. doi:10.1038/nrn1933. PMID 16715056. S2CID 5893980.
  13. ^ Deschenes, M.; Moore, J.; Kleinfeld, D. (2011). "Sniffing and whisking in rodents". Current Opinion in Neurobiology. 22 (2): 1–8. doi:10.1016/j.conb.2011.11.013. PMC 4934665. PMID 22177596.
  14. ^ Sobel, N; Thomason, M.E; Stappen, I.; Tanner, C. M.; Tetrud, J. W.; Bower, J. M.; Sullivan, E. V.; Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2001). "An impairment in sniffing contributes to the olfactory impairment in Parkinson's disease". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 98 (7): 4154–4159. Bibcode:2001PNAS...98.4154S. doi:10.1073/pnas.071061598. PMC 31195. PMID 11259673.
  15. ^ Cite error: The named reference Wesson2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).