Spacecraft design

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Spacecraft design is a process where systems engineering principles are systemically applied in order to construct complex vehicles for missions involving travel, operation or exploration in outer space. This design process produces the detailed design specifications, schematics, and plans for the spacecraft system, including comprehensive documentation outlining the spacecraft's architecture, subsystems, components, interfaces, and operational requirements, and potentially some prototype models or simulations, all of which taken together serve as the blueprint for manufacturing, assembly, integration, and testing of the spacecraft to ensure that it meets mission objectives and performance criteria.

Spacecraft design is conducted in several phases. Initially, a conceptual design is made to determine the feasibility and desirability of a new spacecraft system, showing that a credible design exists to carry out the mission. The conceptual design review ensures that the design meets the mission statement without any technical flaws while being internally consistent. Next, a preliminary design is carried out, where the focus is on functional performance, requirements definition, and interface definition at both subsystem and system levels. The preliminary design review evaluates the adequacy of the preliminary design. In the following phase, detailed design is drawn and coded for the system as a whole and all the subsystems, and a critical design review is performed where it is evaluated whether the design is sufficiently detailed to fabricate, integrate, and test the system.^[1][2]

Throughout spacecraft design, potential risks are rigorously identified, assessed, and mitigated, systems components are properly integrated and comprehensively tested. The entire lifecycle (including launch, mission operations and end-of-mission disposal) is taken into account. An iterative process of reviews and testing is continuously employed to refine, optimize and enhance the design's effectiveness and reliability. In particular, the spacecraft's mass, power, thermal control, propulsion, altitude control, telecommunication, command and data, and structural aspects are taken into consideration. Choosing the right launch vehicle and adapting the design to the chosen launch vehicle is also important.^[1][2] Regulatory compliance, adherence to International standards, designing for a sustainable, debris-free space environment are some other considerations that have become important in recent times.

Spacecraft design includes the design of both robotic spacecrafts (satellites and planetary probes), and spacecrafts for human spaceflight (spaceships and space stations). Human-carrying spacecrafts require additional life support systems, crew accommodations, and safety measures to support human occupants, as well as human factors engineering considerations such as ergonomics, crew comfort, and psychological well-being. Robotic spacecraftS require autonomy, reliability, and remote operation capabilities without human presence. The distinctive nature and the unique needs and constraints related to each of them significantly impact spacecraft design considerations.

Recent developments in spacecraft design include electric propulsion systems (e.g. ion thrusters and Hall-effect thrusters) for high-specific-impulse propulsion, solar sails (using solar radiation pressure) for continuous thrust without the need for traditional rockets,^[3] additive manufacturing (3D printing) and advanced materials (e.g. advanced composites, nanomaterials and smart materials) for rapid prototyping and production of lightweight and durable components, artificial intelligence and machine learning-assisted autonomous systems for spacecraft autonomy and improved operational efficiency in long and faraway missions, in situ resource utilization (ISRU) technologies for extraction and utilization of local resources on celestial bodies, and CubeSats and other standardized miniature satellites^[3] for cost-effective space missions around Earth.

Spacecraft design involves experts from various fields such as engineering, physics, mathematics, computer science, etc. who come together to collaborate and participate in interdisciplinary teamwork. Furthermore, international collaboration and partnerships between space agencies, organizations, and countries help share expertise, resources, and capabilities for the mutual benefit of all parties. The challenges of spacecraft design drive technological innovation and engineering breakthroughs in professional and industrial sectors. The complexity of spacecraft design engages students in STEM subjects (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics), fosters scientific literacy and inspire the next generation of scientists, engineers, and innovators.