Varna (Hinduism)

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'Varṇa' (Sanskrit: वर्ण, Hindi pronunciation: ['ʋəɾɳə]), in the context of Hinduism,[1] refers to a social class within a hierarchical traditional Hindu society.[2][3] The ideology is epitomized in texts like Manusmriti,[1][4][5] which describes and ranks four varnas, and prescribes their occupations, requirements and duties, or Dharma.[1][6]

This quadruple division is a form of social stratification, quite different from the more nuanced system of Jātis, which correspond to the European term "caste".[8]

The varna system is discussed in Hindu texts, and understood as idealised human callings.[9][10] The concept is generally traced to the Purusha Sukta verse of the Rig Veda. In the post-Vedic period, the varna division is described in the Mahabharata, Puranas and in the Dharmashastra literatures.[11]

The commentary on the Varna system in the Manusmriti is often cited.[12] Counter to these textual classifications, many Hindu texts and doctrines question and disagree with the Varna system of social classification.[13]

In India, communities that belong to one of the four varnas or classes are called savarna Hindus. The Dalits and tribals who do not belong to any varna were called avarna.[14][15][16]

  1. ^ a b c Doniger, Wendy (1999). Merriam-Webster's encyclopedia of world religions. Springfield, MA, USA: Merriam-Webster. p. 186. ISBN 978-0-87779-044-0.
  2. ^ Tenhunen, Sirpa; Säävälä, Minna (2012). An Introduction to Changing India: Culture, Politics and Development. Anthem Press. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-85728-805-9. Retrieved 20 August 2022.
  3. ^ Johnson, W. J. (1 January 2009). varṇa (' class', lit. ' colour'). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ACREF/9780198610250.001.0001. ISBN 9780198610250. OCLC 244416793. OL 23224406M. Wikidata Q55879169.(subscription or UK public library membership required)
  4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Monier-Williams 2005 924 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  5. ^ Cite error: The named reference Malik 2005 p.48 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  6. ^ Ingold, Tim (1994). Companion Encyclopedia of Anthropology. London New York: Routledge. p. 1026. ISBN 978-0-415-28604-6.
  7. ^ Kumar, Arun (2002). Encyclopaedia of Teaching of Agriculture. Anmol Publications. p. 411. ISBN 978-81-261-1316-3.
  8. ^ Juergensmeyer, Mark (2006). The Oxford Handbook of Global Religions. Oxford University Press, USA. p. 54. ISBN 978-0-19-972761-2.
  9. ^ Bayly, Caste, Society and Politics (2001), p. 8
  10. ^ Thapar, Romila (2004), Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300, University of California Press, p. 63, ISBN 978-0-520-24225-8
  11. ^ Hiltebeitel, Dharma (2011), pp. 529–531
  12. ^ David Lorenzen (2006). Who invented Hinduism: Essays on religion in history. Yoda Press. pp. 147–149. ISBN 978-81-902272-6-1.
  13. ^ Bayly, Caste, Society and Politics (2001), p. 9
  14. ^ DR Jatava (2011). The Hindu Sociology. Surabhi Publications. p. 92. ISBN 9788186599396.
  15. ^ Chandra, Bipan (1989. India's Struggle for Independence, 1857-1947, pp. 230-231. Penguin Books India
  16. ^ Yājñika, Acyuta and Sheth, Suchitra (2005). The Shaping of Modern Gujarat: Plurality, Hindutva, and Beyond, p. 260. Penguin Books India